Foster Simon

CHINA's Three Gorges & Xi'an

China's Three Gorges, Xi'an & the Terracotta Warriors

Simon Foster

Hunter Publishing, Inc.

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This guide focuses on recreational activities. As all such activities contain elements of risk, the publisher, author, affiliated individuals and companies disclaim any responsibility for any injury, harm, or illness that may occur to anyone through, or by use of, the information in this book. Every effort was made to insure the accuracy of information in this book, but the publisher and author do not assume, and hereby disclaim, any liability for loss or damage caused by errors, omissions, misleading information or potential travel problems caused by this guide, even if such errors or omissions result from negligence, accident or any other cause.

Cover photograph:  Great Wall (© Tom Till/Alamy)

All photos by Simon Foster, unless otherwise indicated. Special thanks

to Tot Foster, Ewen Bell (www.ewenbell.com), Magalie L'Abbé and Galen Frysinger (www.galenfrysinger.com) for their photographs.

A Changing China

As is always the case with the information in guidebooks, things change. Hotels close down (or just get run down), great new restaurants pop up and bars, clubs and Internet cafés come and go with the wind. In a country changing as fast as China this is even more so, and new roads, hotels and even cities, seem to appear overnight. All of the information in this book was carefully researched and correct at time of going to press. If there's anything you come across in your travels that has closed or gone downhill, or any great new offerings or adventures that you think should be in the book, please contact the publishers at comments@hunterpublishing.com.

About the Author

Simon Foster was born in England. Family trips first kindled his interest in places other than his own and after graduating in geography he set off to seek what he'd been studying. Following his first extended trip, wanderlust firmly set in and Simon became an adventure tour leader in the Middle East and Asia. He soon started travel writing and has contributed to the Rough Guide's Australia, China, Egypt, Europe, India and Tunisia books. Simon has spent most of the past ten years overseas, principally in China and sunny southern Taiwan. When he's not working, Simon enjoys, you guessed it, travel, whether to the Philippines or just back home to Yorkshire.

the Rough Guide's Australia, China, Egypt, Europe, India and Tunisia books. Simon has spent most of the past ten years overseas, principally in China and sunny southern Taiwan. When he's not leading tours or writing, Simon enjoys, you guessed it, travel, whether to the Philippines or just back home to Yorkshire.

Dedication

I'd like to dedicate this book to my grandfather, Maurice, who traveled the globe with the merchant navy and always followed my world wanderings on his atlas at home in Newcastle in England. May he rest in peace.

Thanks

Friends, old and new, from around the globe, have played their part in this book, and I want to say a great big thank you for all the time, effort, tips and tales. Firstly, thanks to my wife, Tot, without whom I would've surely given up several times along the way. Tot assisted with research, writing and by taking many of the book's photos. I'd also like to say a big thank you to photographer Ewen Bell (www.ewenbell.com) who was kind enough to let us use his incredible images. Next, my best mate Craig, who read through material in record time and threw in the odd amusing comment to spur me on.

As always, my family has supported me and contributed their own skills - my dad helped to manage the project as a whole, my mum (the librarian) helped with the booklist and my sister and Monty resolved computer problems as I created them! My Uncle Mick is an ornithologist and helped on the Flora and Fauna section and Jadranka, an author herself, and my Uncle Jon proffered helpful advice.

In China: xie xie to Ben, Leo, Nick and Su-San in Beijing, Fox in Xi'an, Lu in Shandong, John Zhang in Chongqing, Steven Huang in Tunxi, Mr. Hu in Tangkou and Pete, Selina and Chris Winnan in Guangzhou. To my friends in Guangxi who helped re-initiate me to the new Yangshuo - Alf, Bill, Chris Barclay, Dee, Echo, Forest, Ian Ford and Ian Hamilton, Jessie, Malcolm, Naomi, William, Sam, Shelly, Xu Chen Zuo and the China Climb team. A bigger thank you still must go to William and Linda Lu who nourished me well with food and information. And an enormous thank you goes to Rose Mo who assisted with the language section. In Hong Kong: Sarah Clark and Paul Etherington. In Europe: thank you very much indeed to Adi Vimal, Dara-Lynne, Henrik Rasmussen and his family, Jane and Eric and Terry and Jensia. Last, but by no means least, thanks to Michael and the team at Hunter Publishing, for letting this book happen and for breaking up my unruly sentences!

Introduction

History

Prehistory

The Dynastic Age

The Revolutionary Years

The PRC Under Chairman Mao

The Reform Era (1976-present)

The Future

Geography

Flora & Fauna

Wildlife

Population

People

Religion & Philosophy

Beliefs & Superstitions

Culture

Architecture

Bronzes

Ceramics

Jade & Lacquer

Painting

Calligraphy

Literature

Poetry

Music

Acrobatics

Martial Arts

Film

Traditional Chinese Medicine

Travel & Living Information

Planning Your Trip

When to Go

Holidays & Festivals

Organized Tours

Visas

Insurance

What to Pack

Information Sources

Maps

Customs & Immigration

Getting Here & Away

Getting Around

Practicalities

Money Matters

Keeping in Touch

Media

Health

Restrooms

Safety

Facts & Figures

Accommodation

Food & Drink

Price Codes

The Four Major Styles

Where to Eat

Entertainment & Nightlife

Shopping

Adventures

Eco-Travel

The Top 25

Suggested Itineraries

The Imperial North

Cruise the Three Gorges

Shanghai, Silk & Tea

Big City Lights & Rural Delights

Xi'an

History

Getting Here & Away

Getting Around

Orientation

Sightseeing

Around Xi'an

Banpo Museum

Huaqing Pool

Qin Shi Huang's Tomb

The Terracotta Warriors

Pandas

Huashan

Galleries, Shows & Theaters

For Families

Health & Relaxation

Shopping

Adventures

Cultural Adventures

Where to Stay

Where to Eat

Nightlife

The Three Gorges

History

Chongqing

History

Getting Here & Away

Getting Around

Orientation

Sightseeing

Galleries, Shows & Theaters

Shopping

Where to Stay

Where to Eat

Nightlife

The Three Gorges

Cruises

Sightseeing

Yichang

Getting Here & Away

Getting Around

Orientation

Sightseeing

Where to Stay

Where to Eat & Drink

Appendix

Bibliography & Recommended Reading

Glossary

Language

Dialects

The Spoken Word

The Written Word

Wizened monks wearing walkmans, wooden huts topped with satellite dishes, pet dogs passing those soon to be eaten, skyscrapers smiling down on temples. China is the ultimate land of contrasts!

Introduction

China, a country of superlatives, most populous of nations, hidden for so long, is now emerging onto the world travel scene. From frozen north to tropical south, modern east to wild west, this is a huge, diverse land just waiting to be explored. It abounds in magnificent sights - some are natural like the mystical limestone peaks of Guangxi, while others are manmade testaments to the power and glory of China's past, such as the Forbidden City. Some are a combination of the two such as the Great Wall or the impossibly steep Longji rice-terraces, where man has ruthlessly crowned nature's achievements.

Tien'anmin Square

However, many travelers' most enduring memory of this vast country is its people. From farmers to fashion students they all have a tale to tell and, even though most don't speak your language, that won't stop them from trying. Still predominantly rural, China's massive population, though principally Han Chinese, is actually comprised of some 56 different ethnic groups ranging from Central Asian horsemen such as Kazakhs in the northwest, more akin to Turks than Chinese, to the hilltribe peoples of the southwest. Long suppressed, the traditions of these minorities are now experiencing a renaissance, albeit often for tourist purposes. With such diverse people and regions comes an incredible variety of food, making China one of the world's great culinary centers - from ultra-fresh Cantonese to fiery Szechuan, or Mongolian hotpot to Beijing duck, there is always something new to try. When you add all these elements to the fact that this is the fastest-changing country in the world, it's no wonder the race to see China is on.

The events of the last 50 years have blanketed and even physically destroyed previous images of this vast unknown land and, until recently, many people's perception was of little more than an overpopulated, oppressed, Communist country. Fortunately, China has opened up, in its own inimitable way, and is here to challenge preconceptions. A country on the move, where China will end up remains unclear, but it is definitely going somewhere - at least, some of it is.

Phenomenal wealth exists side-by-side with poverty and the Middle Kingdom's growing middle class are eagerly exchanging their bicycles for motorcycles and work unit housing for smart new apartment complexes. Yet China still has one of the world's worst human rights records, and there are serious questions that need to be answered about where the current ideology is taking this giant. The system allows for capitalist money-flow, with the crushing power of communism to dictate exactly what happens where and when. Corruption aside, this system is efficient but leaves little say for the people. The Three Gorges Dam Project, dislodging well over a million people, is a case in point. While equality and the distribution of resources are supposedly central tenets of communism, little of the cities' new-found wealth makes its way to the impoverished rural majority. Walking past the designer shops, McDonalds and Starbucks in Beijing, Shanghai or Shenzhen, you'd be hard-pressed to guess this is the same country where pictures of Mao still adorn most village houses and farmers use buffalos to plough their fields. Such paradoxes are nevertheless a fascinating and integral part of the emerging modern China.

Terracotta warriors, Xi'an

China is such an enormous place with so much to offer that you could spend your whole life here and never see it all, especially since previously inaccessible areas are continually opening up to foreign visitors. Thus it is best taken in bite-sized chunks or, if you have the opportunity, in an extended stay. But even on a short trip it's possible to link up several of the areas we cover in one trip (see Top 25 and Suggested Itineraries for possible routes). This book is designed to allow you to experience as many facets of the country as possible, while concentrating on a few, select areas that can offer a broad insight into China. These are the great cities of Beijing, Shanghai and Hong Kong, the Terracotta Warriors near Xi'an, the Yangzi River's Three Gorges and the majestic rural scenery around Guilin in Guangxi Province. A few other choice sights close to these cities are also covered, including the imperial retreat at Chengde near Beijing and the picturesque cities of Suzhou and Hangzhou close to Shanghai, while the freshly painted mountain scenery of Huangshan adds a little rural flavor to this highly developed part of the country. Yangshuo near Guilin makes for a lower-key introduction to this idyllic rural area and is a great place to try your hand at Chinese calligraphy or tai chi and Longji up in the hills is unmissable for its rice terraces.

Proceeding south, Guangzhou and Shenzhen offer many visitors their first taste of mainland China while, nestled on the western side of the Pearl River Delta, Macau is definitely worth the short boat ride from Hong Kong. Whether climbing, shopping, sightseeing or studying, in these places you will find adventures that stimulate the body and mind, getting you into the heart of the country and under the skin of its culture.

History

Chinese history dates back a long, long time. The immense timeline, mythical beginnings, dynastic power struggles and divisions, not to mention the complex modern period, can make gaining a sense of scale and unity in China's history a daunting prospect. The Quick Reference Guide below gives a simplified overview from prehistory to the present. The bracketed sections indicate contemporaneous events in the Western world.

Prehistory

Chinese legend has it that the world was created by Panku and that the parasites living on his body became humans. Civilization then developed with the help of the guiding advances made by the Five Sovereigns, the last of whom, Yu, Tamer of Floods, is also believed to have formed the first of China's dynasties, the Xia, in the 22nd century BC.

Myth and legend aside, homo erectus in China has a history dating back 600,000 years before Christ, first emerging in the great river valleys. In the 1920s the discovery of skull remains, 30 miles from Beijing, reinforced the contested theory of evolution and showed that so-called Peking Man (see Beijing) knew how to use fire and basic stone tools. Homo sapiens emerged between 500,000 and 200,000 BC and gradually developed into modern man. Humans began to speak during the Paleolithic Age, which lasted from 100,000-10,000 BC, but it wasn't until 5000 BC that anything resembling a culture began to develop.

YangshaoCulture (5000-3000 BC)

Centered in what are now Shaanxi and Gansu provinces, Yangshao culture was probably a matriarchal society, although the official party line interprets it as a Communist community! People farmed, fished and kept domestic animals and when they died they were buried with funerary objects, including ceramic bowls and jade ornaments.

The Dynastic Age

Xia Dynasty (2100-1600 BC)

The Three Dynasties  (2100-221 BC) is a term used to describe the supposed first three Chinese dynasties, the Xia, the Shang and the Zhou. While much during this time still remains unclear, when Yu, Tamer of Floods, died and handed power over to his son, Qi, the Xia dynasty was born, marking the beginnings of the Chinese as a unified people. The Xiarepresents the transition from primitive to civilized society, a shift based on the right to ownership, with the family unit at its core and the tradition of dynastic succession.

Shang Dynasty (1600-1122 BC)

The Shang dynasty followed the Xia and, although literacy was very limited, the first records of Chinese characters come from this time, marked onto oracle bones. This was China's Bronze Age and many of the fine pieces you see in museums today were forged during the Shang and subsequent Zhou (see Bronzes). Archeological finds indicate that the Shang practiced ancestor worship, a belief which continues in the 21st century AD.

Zhou Dynasty (1122-221 BC)

The Zhou dynasty saw the country divided into many states, each of which was controlled by a family relative. The Zhou also introduced the concept of Divine Mandate (or the Mandate of Heaven), which allowed for the succession of one ruler or dynasty over another, if it was ordained by heaven. The Zhou dynasty is divided into two periods, the Western Zhou which ran from 1122 to 771 BC, and the Eastern Zhou, between 771 and 221 BC. Toward the close of the Eastern Zhou, the increasing population and the breakdown of relations between the dynastic states led to factional conflicts in a time which became known as the Warring States Period (475-221 BC). This part of history was very fractured and uncertain, but from it emerged stabilizing elements that remain to this day, namely the thoughts and theories of wandering scholars like Confucius and Lao Zi, the creator of Taoism

Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC)

Throughout the Warring States Period, the state of Qin had been gradually acquiring more territory and power, and in 221 BC, Qin Shi Huang brought the Qin Dynasty to power. Though cruel and very short-lived, the Qin is perceived as "China's first dynasty” and has had a lasting impact, most obviously in the country's name, China (in pinyin q is pronounced as ch, thus Qin is spoken as Chin). Qin Shi Huang rejected traditional Confucian values and set about unifying and expanding China, making his mark with a number of grand schemes, most famously the completion of the earliest version of the Great Wall. He also implemented a system of currency and writing. Ultimately, though, Qin Shi Huang's reign was ruthless and unpopular, forcing farmers to leave the land to work on his great projects and, when he died in 210 BC, his heirs were incapable of holding the empire together. But the 1974 discovery of his secret legacy, the Terracotta Warriors that guard his tomb near Xi'an, has ensured that Qin Shi Huang and the glory of the Qin will never be forgotten.

Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD)

The fact that the dominant ethnic group and the country's language still bear the name Han in the 21st century gives some insight into the power and legacy of the Han dynasty. Liu Bang (subsequently known as Gaozu, or High Ancestor), a warlord of peasant origins, was the first of 27 Lius to rule in the Han line. He established his grand capital near modern Xi'an but, for the latter half of the Han dynasty (referred to as the Eastern Han), Luoyang became the emperor's seat. Though Liu Bang had little time for Confucian ideals, it was during the Han dynasty that written exams on Confucian lore were introduced as necessary qualifications for official postings. To limit the power of the aristocracy, regional control was put in the hands of these officials who could be transferred or replaced as required. And to appease the peasantry, land taxation was reduced from the high levels it had reached under the Qin.

Advances, Expansion & Revolt

During the Han, substantial advances were made in agriculture, paper and textiles. This was a time of expansion which called for a strong army and led to improvements in warfare. At its peak the Han dynasty stretched as far south as Vietnam and saw the trickle of trade routes to the West develop into the Silk Road. However, all this war was expensive and when Wu Di, the Martial Emperor, died in 87 BC, although China was larger than ever, the coffers were nearly empty. The peasants, who had been taxed more heavily as his reign progressed, were ready to revolt and this situation allowed the throne to be temporarily usurped by the nobly born Wang Mang. In 9 AD he declared himself the first emperor of the Xin dynasty (New dynasty) and set about land reforms, but in 23 AD the Han reasserted its rule from its new capital, Luoyang in Shandong province. However, the Han's heyday had passed and as its power diluted the dynasty slipped into turmoil before expiring in 220 AD. Knowledge of Chinese history up to this point is greatly aided by the extensive historical record writing of Sima Qian, one of China's greatest historians.

Three Kingdoms Period (220-581 AD)

The demise of the Han left a fragmented China wrought with complex power struggles that would last almost four centuries. China was divided into three kingdoms: the northern Wei, ruled by Cao Pei, son of Han poet and general, Cao Cao; the southern Wu; and, in the southwest, the Shu. The trials of the time were subsequently recorded in the Ming dynasty work Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Also known as the Period of Division, this was a violent, unsettled time but one that saw the re-emergence of the aristocracy and a range of new influences reach China. China's first alien dynasty came into being when Liu Yuan, king of the nomadic northern Xiongnu tribe, captured Luoyang and declared the restoration of the Han dynasty. Buddhism began to take hold, particularly in the north, but, like almost everything else, was quickly sinicized.

Sui Dynasty (581-618 AD)

The Three Kingdoms Period was a dark and confused time, but its patronage of the arts laid a rich platform for the Sui and Tang to build on. The 400-year struggle for power ended when General Yang Jian of the Wei kingdom managed to unify the northern states and conquer the southern states, founding the short-lived Sui dynasty. Its brevity did not stop the Sui from forming lasting legacies, and the second emperor, Yang Di, ordered the construction of the 1,000-mile Grand Canal (see Suzhou), linking the Yangzi rice bowl to the imperial capital in the north. But thousands died in grand projects and military expansion into Korea and it was the suffering inflicted by the regime that led to its demise. Yang Di was assassinated and a military revolt was led by none other than his cousin, General Li Yuan.

The canals of Suzhou

The Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD)

Despite the consolidation of the Sui, the re-unification of north and south was by no means inevitable. China's reconsolidation and the resultant advances in agriculture, the arts and trade grounded the concept of a united kingdom as an ideal and marked the Tang as China's most glorious dynasty. Territorial expansion also played a key part in the Tang's success (and ultimately, its failure). At its greatest, Chinese influence expanded from Korea to Persia. The name of the imperial capital, Chang'an (modern day Xi'an), means eternal peace and its million-strong population relished in the prosperity and new influences that this peace afforded.

Arts & Religion under the Tang

After the previous fractious periods of division, the calm and prosperity of a unified China provided a springboard for the arts, particularly painting, poetry and pottery. Two of China's most famous poets to this day, Li Bai and Du Fu, wrote during the Tang and the world's first printed book was published in 868. Pottery began to take on more color and glaze, and the tri-color techniques refined in the Tang are still in use today (see Ceramics). Trade was fundamental to both economic success and the resultant thriving religious and artistic scene. The Silk Road and the maritime ports of Guangzhou and Yangzhou brought, not only foreign goods, but outside ideas to the country. A tolerant attitude to foreigners allowed for a more cosmopolitan China; other religions such as Islam and Nestorianism established themselves, but neither prospered like Buddhism. As imperial patronage of Buddhism increased, it was represented in cave art, which reached its peak in the Tang, although much was later destroyed in periods of religious repression. Notable Buddhist cave art from the Tang remains today at Dunhuang in Gansu,  Longmen Grottoes in Shandong province and at Dazu in Szechuan.

China's First Empress

Thirty years into the dynasty, a power struggle for the throne led to the naming of Taizong's (624-49) ninth son as Emperor Gaozong in 649. Only 20 years old when he came to the throne and plagued by ill health, Gaozong's power was soon controlled by his consort and former concubine, Wu Zetian, who had managed to oust the empress and take her place. When Gaozong died, she continued to rule for their weak son. A shrewd and manipulative woman, Wu finally usurped the throne in 698 AD, proclaiming the foundation of the Zhou dynasty in 698 AD, and giving China its first empress. Her relationship with Buddhism (and with Buddhist priests) has been questioned, but the royal carvings she commissioned at Longmen Grottoes in Luoyang are a testament to her short rule, which ended with her abdication in 705.

Close of the Tang

In 712, Xuanzong ascended to the throne and, although he is remembered as one of the Tang's greatest emperors and his reign began gloriously, as it progressed, power was eroded. There was a military defeat by the Arabs in 751, invasions from Tibet and finally a revolt led by the Turkish general An Lushan. Although the rebellion was crushed, the power of the state was considerably weakened and Xuanzong's rule ended in 756. After Xuanzong, imperial control was further diluted by internal power struggles and several emperors were poisoned by court eunuchs. Eunuchs continued to exert influence over court proceedings and a string of weak emperors allowed them to chip away at the imperial power base. It became clear that the dynasty had lost the Mandate of Heaven and, in 907, the last of the Tang emperors abdicated.

Song Dynasty (960-1279)

In spite of a 50-year hiatus from unified rule known as the Five Dynasties (907-960), advances made during the Tang had laid the way for economic development. When Zhao Kuangyin (Emperor Taizu) re-united the country and founded the Song dynasty in 960, things quickly picked up from where the Tang had left off. Commerce flourished from the capital at Kaifeng and the great cities grew larger, while new ones sprung up all over the south. Agricultural and industrial success opened the doors for artistic developments and the Song is remembered as a time of great poetry, pottery and landscape painting - Su Dongpo (see Poetry), one of China's greatest poets, lived during the Song. But art doesn't maintain empires and, in spite of the invention of gunpowder and the magnetic compass, the Song's failure to achieve military dominance resulted in the loss of their capital in 1126 to the Jurchen, a sinicized Manchurian tribe which founded its own dynasty, the Jin (1115-1234). Forced to re-locate to Hangzhou and burdened by humiliating and considerable indemnity payments to their new neighbors, the dynasty became known as the Southern Song (1126-1279). They blossomed culturally, but failed politically and militarily.

Yue Fei

The Song dynasty certainly isn't known for its military leadership but Yue Fei (1103-42), a young man who was instrumental in subduing rebel bands after the Song were forced south to Hangzhou, emerged as a great hero from this time. He campaigned against the Jurchen in the north but his efforts were nullified by a settlement that made the Southern Song vassals of the Jurchen Jin dynasty. Yue Fei was executed as a supposed traitor, but his determined patriotism won him a place in the hearts of the Chinese people; 20 years later he was recognized as a national hero and reburied in a grand tomb in Hangzhou.

Rise of the Mongols

Military heroes like Yue Fei were in the minority though, and the Song's preoccupation with the arts contributed to their demise. While the Song is remembered as one of China's great dynasties, it never exerted the military dominance over East Asia that had been achieved under the Han and Tang and it was under constant threat of attack from the north. Even after losing Kaifeng and northern China to the Jurchen, the Song still paid little heed to the dangers of outside invasion. The Mongols, united under the forceful leadership of Genghis Khan at the start of the 13th century, had become increasingly powerful and penetrated deep into Chinese territory, taking Beijing in 1215. In 1279 Kublai Khan, Genghis Khan's grandson, founded the Yuan dynasty.

Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368)

The military might of Genghis Khan's marauding Mongolian tribes enabled him to seize control of a vast swathe of land from China to Europe. By the latter part of the 13th century this subsumed the northern Jurchen Jin dynasty and then the Southern Song, making China just another Mongol outpost with Genghis' grandson, Kublai Khan, at its head. The Mongols' nomadic traditions were ill-suited to static urban control and they soon adopted the Chinese style of rule, establishing their capital, Dadu, on the site of modern Beijing. Chinese influences were welcomed and rejected to differing extents under the various Yuan leaders, but ultimately the conquerors were changed more than the conquered. However, the Mongol tradition of elected leaders was harder to erase and ran contrary to the Chinese concept of dynastic succession. This remained a problem throughout the Yuan dynasty - each time an emperor died there was an ensuing power struggle. Nevertheless the Yuan was not without its accomplishments and trade across Mongolian Central Asia boomed, bringing a wealth of goods, influences and outside expertise to China

Kublai Khan

Social Division & Downfall

The lavish court lifestyle of the Yuan, as described by Marco Polo during his purported stay, didn't sit well with nomadic traditions and gradually eroded the military might of the Mongols. Fierce resistance and typhoons contributed to military failure in Japan, while little more success was met in the unfamiliar terrain of Southeast Asia.

The reasons for the downfall of the Yuan dynasty are debatable and are manifold, but Kublai Khan's division of subjects into four racial groups certainly did little to endear him to the Chinese majority. Mongols were at the top of the ladder, followed by Central Asians and Westerners; next came the Han Chinese and, on the bottom rung, the southern Chinese. Within this structure, Muslims were granted special privileges and, in the Buddhist world, Tibetans held the key posts. This alienated and angered the Chinese population. Secret Buddhist societies, like the White Lotus and Red Turbans, emerged and plotted insurrection, which was met with oppression at the hands of Kublai's inept successors, but this only led to more sustained resistance. Finally a full-scale uprising under the monk turned rebel leader, Zhu Yuanzhang, usurped the throne from the child emperor in 1368 and instilled the Ming dynasty.

Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)

Hongwu

Zhu Yuanzhang took the imperial name Hongwu, established his capital at Nanjing (Southern Capital) and gave the new dynasty its name, Ming meaning brightness. The Ming certainly ruled with far more power than their Mongol predecessors and succeeded in restoring the country to centralized control after a century of foreign rule. While exerting less cultural influence than either the Han or the Tang, the Ming lasted some three centuries and during this long rule the Forbidden City was built after Yongle, the second emperor, relocated the capital to Beijing. Major improvements were made to the Great Wall and the imperial kilns at Jingdezhen produced the distinctive fine white and blue pottery for which the Ming dynasty is still famous today. Novels also found a place in Ming libraries and classics, such as The Outlaws of the Marsh and Romance of the Three Kingdoms, were written in vernacular language, which made them accessible to a wider audience.

Zheng He

The Ming dynasty was, for the most part, an inward-looking period that saw ties severed with many old trading partners and thus decreased the amount of contact China had with other countries. But in the early 15th century this was not yet the case and the emperor Yongle ordered enormous fleets to explore the oceans in search of knowledge and trade. Commanded by the Muslim eunuch admiral, Zheng He, the armadas that set sail from Nanjing were, by far, the biggest the world had ever seen, both in the number of ships and vessel size. The largest baochuan (treasure ships) were over 400 feet long, dwarfing all that had come before. In his seven great voyages, Zheng He sailed as far as the west coast of Africa, and established trading links in Malacca (in modern day Malaysia) and on India's Malabar Coast. But, shortly after Zheng He set sail on his final voyage, the Forbidden City was struck by lightning, which was seen as a sign of the gods' displeasure and almost all records of Zheng's grand journeys were destroyed. It is only in the past few years that these ventures have surfaced again and recent research suggests that it was the imperial fleet under Zheng He that paved the way for the likes of Vasco de Gama and Magellan.

Close of the Ming

The later Ming years produced a string of weak rulers and, as before, power fell into the manipulative hands of court officials and eunuchs who bickered and squabbled but did little to support the country. By the start of the 17th century the country's frontier defenses had fallen apart and a series of peasant uprisings further weakened the Ming power base. In 1644 rebel forces under Shaanxi-born Li Zicheng stormed the capital and the last Ming emperor fled to Jingshan Park, just behind the Forbidden City, where he ended his own life and, with it, the Ming dynasty.

Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)

The Manchu descendants of the northeastern Jurchen Jin dynasty saw their chance and moved in, ejecting Li Zicheng and claiming the capital as their own, although it took another few decades before the whole country was under the control of the newly-formed Qing (meaning Clear) dynasty. The Qing immediately imposed their Manchu culture onto the Chinese, obliging men to wear traditional pigtails and making their native tongue the official language. While Ming officials were maintained in some ranks to appease the Chinese, the top posts were reserved for those of Manchu stock. But, as with every culture that had come before and tried to absorb China into its own mold, the Manchus were quickly assimilated into Chinese culture. By the late Qing, its emperors were so cast in the Confucian model that anti-Manchu sentiment had almost ceased to be an issue.

A Golden Age

Lama Temple

The early years of the Qing dynasty saw some of China's most proficient leaders and the reigns of Kangxi (1661-1722), Yongzheng (1723-35) and Qianlong (1736-95) are remembered as a golden age. During the 18th century the Qing doubled China's territorial size. Kangxi quashed rebellions and the empire was expanded to include Mongolia, Tibet, Nepal and parts of Central Asia. Kangxi was a patron of the arts and his reign also saw the construction of the Lama Temple in Beijing and the Mountain Retreat in Chengde, whose northerly temples were added to by Qianlong. Yongzheng and Qianlong's stable periods of rule and continued expansion promoted growth in industry and commerce, while the peasantry was appeased with tax reforms and flood control measures. This was China's last age as a great imperial empire and, at the start of the 19th century, the unified country stood as one of the most wealthy and powerful nations in the world.

Foreign Encroachment & the Opium Wars

Western interest in the fabulously wealthy but militarily weak Middle Kingdom grew as more and more merchants made their way to China's shores hoping for a slice of the action. The British East India Company was keen to stake its claim and in 1793 Lord Macartney, George III's envoy, was given an audience with Emperor Qianlong in Chengde, but his refusal to kowtow was a sign of things to come. The Qing did not see the need for Western goods or influences and were not prepared to sign any kind of trading agreements with their perceived subordinates. The East India Company wasn't about to give up on such a lucrative opportunity and began to trade Indian-grown opium, rather than silver, in exchange for silk and tea. Addiction became rife and thus demand increased, which led to a futile attempt to ban the trade. In 1840 the emperor ordered the destruction of 20,000 chests of opium under Lin Zexu, which provoked the First Opium War (1840-2). Two years of bombardment later, the Chinese capitulated and were forced to sign the humiliating Treaty of Nanjing, which included a substantial indemnity payment along with the opening up of new ports and the ceding of Hong Kong to Britain. The Second Opium War (1856-60) brought more losses and underlined the fact that, technologically, China had some catching up to do. Further parcels of land were ceded to Britain, France, Germany, Japan, Russia and the US. Anti-Manchu feeling, long buried just beneath the surface, began to rise.

The Taiping Uprising (1850-64)

The insult of these treaties and their crippling indemnities spurred a number of popular rebellions, the most serious of which was the anti-Manchu Taiping Uprising. Founded by Hong Xiuquan, who believed he was the Son of God and brother of Jesus, this quasi-Christian cult acquired a million-strong army which captured much of the fertile Yangzi valley and established a capital at Nanjing. The uprising's focus on equality has led many to view it as a precursor to communism, while its draconian laws and desire to obliterate all that had come before is comparable to the destructive might of the Cultural Revolution. The uprising was eventually quashed with European support in 1864, but it left millions dead and other revolts broke out, notably the Nien (1853-68).

Empress Dowager Cixi (1835-1908)

It was during the Taiping Rebellion that the Empress Dowager Cixi rose to prominence. Originally a concubine, Cixi managed to maneuver her way to the top and manipulate the ineffective emperors, ruling from behind the scenes between 1861 and 1908. Known as "the Old Buddha,” she bore a son to Emperor Xianfeng, who became Emperor Tongzhi and, after outliving him, she installed her nephew, Guangxu, as emperor. After Guangxu's involvement in the 100 Days Reform Movement in 1898, Cixi kept him under lock and key in the Summer Palace while she ruled in his name. The Empress Dowager proved to be a dominant, yet inept leader and, fearing loss of her power, she rejected all attempts at much-needed reform until it was too late. Her lack of judgment catalyzed the Qing's downfall and her most crass misallocation of funds is still there to see today - the grand marble boat that sits in Kunming Lake at Beijing's Summer Palace was built using finances intended to bolster the navy!

The Boxer Rebellion (1899)

Fifty years of foreign domination and civil unrest made for a mood that only needed harnessing in a popular rebellion to challenge the Qing dynasty. This came in the form of the Boxer (or Righteous Fists) Rebellion, led by a mystical group who claimed invulnerability through the righteousness of their cause and as a result of their breath-control exercises. Their aim was to overthrow the Qing dynasty and destroy foreign influence in China, causes that struck a chord with the masses. Although Cixi managed to quell the rebellion in 1899, she then tried to use the Boxers to her advantage to rid the country of foreigners. In 1900 war was declared on all foreigners within China and the Boxers were set loose on the streets of Beijing. They killed the German and Japanese ministers, along with any other foreigners they could find, but the British and others were able to hold out until an allied support force arrived and routed the Boxers.

The Fall of Dynastic China

In the aftermath of the Boxer Rebellion, Cixi and the emperor fled to Xi'an leaving her ministers to negotiate yet another humiliating peace settlement. Although Cixi clung to the throne until her death in 1908, the dynastic age had passed and plans were afoot to build a new China, without emperors. Protests against a foreign-owned railway line provided the impetus for the final rebellion against dynastic China. The child emperor Puyi could offer no resistance and in 1911 the provisional Republic of China was founded in Nanjing under Dr. Sun Yatsen.

The Revolutionary Years

Dr. Sun Yatsen (1866-1925)

Dr. Sun Yatsen is regarded as the Father of Modern China. He is also known as Sun Zhongshan (the Chinese translation of his Japanese name, Nakayama, which means Middle Mountain). Sun Yatsen was born in Guangdong province and was then schooled around the globe, including a stint in Hawaii and medical training in Hong Kong. He soon developed an interest in politics and a firm belief in reform. After a failed uprising in Guangzhou in 1895 Sun fled to Europe, the US and Japan, acquiring funds and followers as he moved along. In 1905 he formed the Tong Meng Hui, or Revolutionary Alliance in Japan. His vision of modern China was based on the three principles of democracy, nationalism and livelihood and was modeled on the USSR, upon which the Nationalist Party (KMT) became increasingly dependent. After founding the republic, Sun was promptly deposed and fled the country. In 1915 he married Soong Qingling (whose sister, Meiling, married Chiang Kaishek in 1927). Returning to China in 1917, he finally gained control of the country in 1923, priming the way for Chiang Kaishek to ascend to the KMT's top spot. Sun died of cancer in 1925 and is still fondly remembered on both sides of the Taiwan Straits. Almost every town has a Zhongshan Road dedicated to him. The leagues of visitors to his mausoleum in Nanjing are further testimony to his significance in modern Chinese history.

The KMT

With the idealistic principles of Dr. Sun Yatsen at the helm, the future initially seemed bright for the republic, but continued Russian interference and China's failure to successfully unite against Japanese aggression meant that a rocky few decades lay ahead for the new China. After Yuan Shikai deposed the last emperor, a constitution was drawn up and elections were scheduled for 1913, but it soon became clear that Yuan wanted to establish his own power base. Rather than provoke civil war, Sun Yatsen stepped down from his position as head of the newly formed Kuomintang (KMT or Guomindang in Pinyin, National People's Party in English) and once again was forced into exile. Yuan scoffed at Sun Yatsen's withdrawal and in 1914 he made himself president for life. He died two years later and Dr. Sun Yatsen eventually returned to power, albeit heavily reliant on Soviet support. But foreign intervention in China continued to hinder stability and the humiliating terms of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles ignited protests in Tian'anmen Square which became known as the May Fourth Movement. Sun appointed his protégé, Chiang Kaishek (1888-1975, known in China as Jiang Jieshe), as his successor shortly before his death. Under Chiang, the KMT developed into a military dictatorship catering to the social elites, but did little to improve the lot of the rural majority or remove foreign control from the country.

The Emergence of Communism

Nationalism certainly wasn't the only ideology that emerged from the collapse of the imperial age but communism, showcased by the recent Russian revolution, was the only one that offered serious competition to the KMT. You can still visit the building in Shanghai where the Chinese Communist Party was founded in 1921 (see Shanghai, Sightseeing). The CCP initially comprised two groups, the first of which was led by Li Dazhao and included Mao Zedong among its numbers, while the second was headed by Zhou Enlai and was guided by Russian advisors. In 1923, following Russian advice, the CCP and the KMT united to form the National Revolutionary Army, which headed north to remove the threat posed by warlords. The expedition was a success but the unity between communism and nationalism was short-lived. In response to a Communist strike Chiang executed many of the CCP's top leaders in 1927, leaving the rest, including Mao Zedong, to flee for the hills.

The Long March

Chiang Kaishek perceived the Communists as a more significant threat than the encroaching Japanese and focused on trying to obliterate the CCP, forcing them deep into the countryside, where their support was strongest. By 1934 nationalist forces had surrounded Mao Zedong's mountainous Jiangxi base and it seemed as if the Communists were on the verge of defeat. Instead, Mao led 100,000 troops on a year-long, 6,000-mile escape, which became known as the Long March. They traversed numerous mountain ranges, some of which were snowcapped and only 10,000 made it all the way to Yan'an in Shaanxi province. Although thousands died, the march became a symbol of the grit and determination of Mao and the Zunyi Conference along the way firmly established him as the leader of the CCP.

Japanese Encroachment & Civil War

The 1919 Treaty of Versailles had ratified all of Japan's claims to Chinese territory and they were just waiting in the wings to swoop down on China. China's division presented this opportunity and the Japanese seized Manchuria in 1931, renaming it as the supposedly independent state of Manchukuo and installing the last Qing emperor, Puyi, as its puppet leader. Anti-Japanese sentiment ran high and in 1936 Chiang Kaishek was seized by his own officers (which became known as the Xi'an Incident) and forced into forging another doomed alliance between the KMT and the CCP. However, Manchuria was just a prelude to full-scale invasion and in 1937 Japanese forces swept into China and captured much of the east coast by 1939, forcing the government to mountainous Chongqing, from where they were reliant upon US and British airdrops. By 1940 the Japanese controlled Beijing, Shanghai, Nanjing and Guangzhou, while Chiang Kaishek's failure to distribute mutual arms to the Communist Red Army resulted in the collapse of the KMT-CCP alliance. Up to 20 million Chinese are thought to have died during the Japanese invasion and the atrocities committed during the infamous 1937 Rape of Nanjing are reviled to this day.

Allied & Communist Victory

The Allied victory in World War II and the devastating Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs spelled the end for Japanese rule in China and, in spite of US support for the KMT, in 1945 it was the Communists who were better placed and prepared to stake their claim on the country. Although the KMT managed to retake the cities, the rural bulk of the country lay in the hands of the Communists. When the People's Liberation Army (formerly the Red Army) captured a US arms consignment they had not only the weaponry, but the public support and determination to win and the KMT crumbled. Chiang Kaishek fled to Taiwan, along with much of the treasure from the Forbidden City. In Taiwan he established the Republic of China (ROC) with the now inconceivable aim of regrouping to return and reinstate the KMT in China.

Chairman Mao (1893-1976)

Early Years

One of the most iconic figures of the 20th century, Mao Zedong (aka Mao Tse Tung) was born in Hunan into a comparatively wealthy grain-dealing peasant family. He was schooled in Changsha and then continued his education in Beijing. In response to the humiliating terms of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, Mao became involved in the anti-foreign May 4th Movement. Russia's Bolshevik Revolution and sponsorship of communist cells in China helped to convince Mao that socialism was the way forward and, when the CCP was founded in 1921, Mao was one of its key members.

Mao in 1931

Rural Revolt

Mao's time teaching at Guangzhou's Peasant Training Institute in the early 1920s reinforced his socialist principles, but also convinced him that revolution must come from the rural masses. After Chiang Kaishek's purge of the CCP, Mao retreated to establish a Communist Red Army base in Jinggang Shan in Jiangxi and managed to hold out until 1934 when nationalist forces encircled the mountain. The Communist retreat took the form of the incredible Long March (see above), which resulted in huge loss of life and suffering, but it cemented Mao as the resilient leader of the CCP and helped to expand his power base. In spite of Soviet and US support for the KMT, the popular following Mao had engendered carried the CCP to victory.

Revolutionary Zeal

Mao Zedong was hardly seen in public for the first few years of and was at odds with many of the party's early policies. Reforms and successes soon gave way to failures spurred by Mao's belief that his revolutionary ideals had been usurped. The Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution (see below) were both a result of ideology overruling reason and had disastrous consequences for China's people, culture and economy. Although he was never a great statesman it was the powerful personality cult that Mao developed which allowed him to implement these crass plans. He was tempered to some extent by his second-in-command, Zhou Enlai, but Mao's third wife, Jiang Qing fueled his revolutionary zeal. The Cultural Revolution only really ended with Mao's death in 1976 and he was entombed in a grand mausoleum at the center of Tian'anmen Square.

Views of Mao

To western minds Chairman Mao's catastrophic mistakes vastly outweigh his achievements, but within China he is still respected, almost revered, and, although his mistakes are now recognized, they are seen as less significant than his contribution in re-establishing a unified China. The younger generation may be freer in their criticism of Chairman Mao, but his portrait still adorns many rural village living rooms and there are enormous statues of the Great Helmsman, as he has become known, in cities around the country. What Mao Zedong would make of modern China is an interesting question. Although much of the party rhetoric remains intact, economics is at the heart of the new China and the Chairman might be shocked by the hordes of visiting capitalists eagerly snapping up Mao memorabilia, including singing lighters, waving watches and his Little Red Book of thoughts.

The PRC Under Chairman Mao

The Early Years of the PRC

When Mao Zedong stood atop Tian'anmen in Beijing and announced the foundation of the People's Republic of China, the world's most populous Communist state was born. Soviet experts were brought in, five-year plans introduced and, although the country was in ruins, an air of optimism prevailed, especially once industry had been nationalized, revitalized and peasants granted land. The Korean War (1950-53) was an unneeded distraction at this crucial time of reconstruction, but China's victory reaffirmed faith in the Communist party and the mood was buoyant.

The Hundred Flowers Movement (1956)

However, while all outwardly appeared well, Mao feared that the revolutionary zeal of the party was flagging and he sought to rock the boat a little. His famous slogan "let a hundred flowers bloom, let a hundred schools contend” was intended to draw intellectual criticism of the bureaucracy, but resulted in a torrent of direct attacks on the Communist system itself. Posters criticizing officials and policy were plastered on democracy wall near the Forbidden City. Mao responded with an anti-rightist campaign that labeled intellectuals as enemies of socialism. Thousands of people were persecuted and sent off to labor camps.

The Great Leap Forward (1958-60)

Having rattled the bureaucracy, Mao set his sights on agriculture and industry. While industry was already thriving with the help of Russian aid and expertise, agriculture was lagging. The Great Leap Forward was introduced in 1958 and was intended to increase both agricultural and industrial efficiency with a goal of matching British steel output within 15 years. Industry was to benefit from seasonal workers and the introduction of rural industry, while agriculture was to be improved through collectivization.

But this utopian plan was flawed from the start as the peasantry, who had only just acquired their land, were reluctant to collectivize. Poor management, overplanting, unachievable quotas and the focus on steel rather than food all contributed to the Great Leap Forward's outright failure. Both the 1959 and 1960 crops failed and the resulting famine left millions dead and the economy in pieces. The situation was worsened when Mao's distrust of Khrushchev's brand of communism led to the breakup of Sino-Soviet relations and Russia's withdrawal of aid. Mao's political reputation was ruined and critics within the party elite, including Deng Xiaoping  and Liu Shaoqi, voiced their opinions. Following the failure of the Great Leap Forward, the commune policy was diluted and by the middle of the 1960s the economy had recovered.

The Cultural Revolution (1966-69)

Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping favored a liberal approach to the economy to encourage private enterprise, an attitude that Mao saw as dissension. Mao sought to crush the so-called "Pragmatists” with the 1966 Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution which was designed to rid China of the "four olds” - old culture, old customs, old habits and old ideas. Under the guidance of Mao, students in Beijing formed a political militia that became known as the Red Guards. They terrorized the country, brandishing the all-empowering Little Red Book of Mao's thoughts and quotations. The Red Guards set about erasing anything connected with China's history and thousands of buildings, books and businesses were destroyed. Zhou Enlai managed to save a few monuments from Mao's purge, but much of China's greatest art and architecture was lost forever during the Cultural Revolution. Society was turned against itself as quotas were set for the denouncing and re-education of those who were corrupting communism and this ultimately even led to Red Guards reporting one another. Fifteen million people are thought to have died as a result of the Cultural Revolution and millions more were traumatized. While the Cultural Revolution was disastrous in almost every way conceivable it only served to reinforce Mao's seemingly omnipotent cult status. The Cultural Revolution's inextricable link with the Great Helmsman resulted in a failure to address its tragic legacy and even now it is only spoken about in hushed tones.

Broadening the Power Base

Mao with Jiang Qing

In the years prior to his death Mao Zedong was rarely seen and was often represented by his third wife, Jiang Qing and her radical supporters, who became known as the Gang of Four. Lin Biao had been Mao's strongest supporter during the Cultural Revolution and was primed for leadership, but lost some of his power base as the army became less important. What followed is not exactly clear, but in 1972 it was reported that he had died the previous year in a plane crash en route to the Soviet Union. This might be true, but it is more likely that Lin Biao attempted a coup, was executed and then the story created in order to highlight his treachery. With his closest ally gone, Mao sought to expand his power base and Zhou Enlai's protégé, Deng Xiaoping, veteran of the Long March and victim of the Cultural Revolution, returned to office, while Hua Guofeng was preened as Mao's successor. Zhou Enlai had been pragmatically limiting the worst extremes of Mao Zedong's ideological policies since the party's inception and his tact and political skill helped China gain a seat in the UN in 1971 and establish trade links with the US after Nixon's visit in 1972.

Mao's Death & the End of the Gang of Four

However, in early 1976 Zhou Enlai died and, when radicals removed wreaths placed on the Heroes Monument in remembrance of him, a riot ensued. This became known as the Tian'anmen Incident, for which the recently returned Deng Xiaoping was ostensibly blamed and once more removed from office. The radicals quickly capitalized on this and gained ground, but this was to be short-lived. Two months after the massive Tangshan earthquake in Hebei, Chairman Mao died and the Gang of Four had lost their helmsman. Just a month after Mao's death they were arrested; in 1981 they were tried and each sentenced to 20 years in prison. Jiang Qing killed herself and the other three all died under lock and key. The Gang of Four were blamed for the worst excesses of the Cultural Revolution, a factor that helped to keep the Mao cult strong.

The Reform Era (1976-present)

Deng Xiaoping

Deng Xiaoping was born into a wealthy Szechuan family and was educated overseas in France, where he met Zhou Enlai. On returning to China in 1924 he joined the Communist party. He endured the Long March and staved off some of the economic crisis of the Great Leap Forward by establishing a limited free market. During the Cultural Revolution he was publicly humiliated for his moderate ideals and had to work in a tractor factory in Xinjiang as a form of "re-education.” Deng favored a capitalist approach to the economy and, on his return to politics, these views made him a target of the Gang of Four. Deng was blamed for the 1976 Tian'anmen Incident (see above) and once more forced out of politics, but Mao's death and the arrest of the Gang of Four marked a turning point which saw Deng rise to the head of the CCP. Two years later Mao's chosen successor, Huo Guofeng, was ousted and Hu Yaobang instated.

Deng quickly began the economic reforms that paved the way for a string of similar economically minded leaders to bring China to where it is today - capitalist in all but name. On a tour of Guangdong province in the early 1990s Deng famously remarked that "I don't care whether the cat is black or white as long as it catches mice,” reasserting China's capitalism, albeit under the auspices of "socialism with Chinese characteristics.” But economic and political reform did not go hand in hand. While Deng was praised for his economic policies, he will be remembered as the leader who authorized the Tian'anmen Square Incident (see below), a show of strength that resulted in worldwide condemnation. Deng died in 1997 and it was Jiang Zemin, groomed to be his successor, who oversaw the handover of Hong Kong.

Economic Liberalization

Deng's policies focused on economic liberalization to promote foreign investment and internal entrepreneurship and his Four Modernizations (agriculture, defense, industry and science) provided the platform for China's economic transformation and opening up to the world. Technological skill and competency reasserted themselves over ideological commitment as the cornerstones for development. Agricultural collectives were disbanded and farmers were allowed to sell any surplus product on the free market. The number of state-owned businesses was dramatically reduced and there was a distinct shift from heavy to light industry. Special Economic Zones such as Shenzhen were designated and the benefits available attracted large-scale foreign investment. Entrepreneurial capitalism was encouraged and, with its huge population and low wages, China quickly reaped the rewards of international trade and has become the workshop of the world. Since the start of reforms China has maintained an economic growth rate of 7% and cities like Shenzhen and Shanghai's Pudong have sprung up almost overnight.

Tian'anmen Square Incident (1989)

But political and social change didn't follow economic reform and, while artists, writers and even the press enjoyed a measure of freedom in the 1980s, the party's true hand was laid out for all to see in Tian'anmen Square in 1989. Deng had sidelined Hu Yaobang in 1987 for his liberal views and when Hu died in 1989, mourning gave way to full-scale protests in Tian'anmen Square. Martial law was ordered in May but, in spite of this, by June there were a million people gathered in the square, organized by the student leaders Wang Dan, Chai Lin and Wu'er Kaixi. Although predominantly students pushing for greater political and social freedom, there was also an urban worker contingent, who were protesting against the endemic corruption within the system, rapid inflation and the economic reforms which had cost many of them their jobs. When the protesters' demands went unanswered, a thousand-plus students went on a hunger strike. Fifty thousand PLA troops were ordered into Beijing and on June 3rd tanks rolled into Tian'anmen Square. The following day soldiers fired into the unarmed crowd and hundreds, possibly thousands, were killed, although it seems unlikely any genuine statistics will ever emerge.

Foreign journalists who had been covering Mikhail Gorbachev's visit to Beijing witnessed much of what happened and, although satellite links were shut down, the world was given a grisly insight into modern China. International condemnation was followed by arms embargoes and there were protests around the globe. The Tian'anmen Square Incident had also illustrated a rift between the hardliners and more progressive elements within the party. While premier Li Peng was in favor of using force to remove the protesters, others such as party secretary Zhang Ziyang, who was dismissed, sympathized with them. Even now the June 4th Movement, as it is known in party-speak, is seldom discussed in China, and you should be sensitive asking questions about it - only do so in private and if you know the person well.

Jiang Zemin

After the Tian'anmen Square Incident Jiang Zemin, the former Mayor of Shanghai, who was not connected to the events of June 1989, ascended the party ladder. He became General Secretary in 1989 and President in 1992, taking the reins of power when Deng died in 1997. Jiang oversaw the 1997 British return of Hong Kong which had been organized in 1984 (see Hong Kong, The Handover). There was a countdown clock set in Tian'anmen Square and on June 30th there were handover celebrations around the country. Two years later Macau followed suit, albeit less dramatically.

The World Stage

Jiang continued with the open door policy and China began to see the rewards of two decades of increased economic freedom. In spite of E and US arms embargoes, China gained favored trade status with the US under President Clinton in 1995, although relations were strained by allegations that China was stealing US nuclear secrets. The situation suffered another setback in 2001 when a US spy plane collided with a Chinese F8 fighter jet and crash landed on Hainan Island, China's southernmost point. None of the US crew were hurt but the Chinese pilot died and the incident came at a crucial time when the Bush administration was deliberating over whether to supply Taiwan with arms. Tensions were further raised following the accidental NATO bombing of the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade during the Kosovo Crisis a month later. In spite of these complications, economics prevailed and Beijing secured the 2008 Olympics in 2001 andChina was eventually admitted to the World Trade Organization in 2002.

Today's Leadership

In November 2002 a large party conference was held, the net result of which was the emergence of Hu Jintao as leader of the CCP and Wen Jibao as prime minister. Equally as committed to economic progress as their predecessors, Hu and Wen are a sign of the China to come - socialist doctrine remains only in political jargon, not in practice. Indeed Wen Jibao supported Zhang Ziyang in his sympathetic attitude with the 1989 protesters and as such there is some hope that China may proceed along moderate lines.

The Future

Life for many Chinese is undeniably better than it has ever been; the economy is burgeoning and China is becoming an ever more significant player on the world scene. In the 1970s the most people could aspire to own was a bicycle, a watch and a radio, but these days some young Chinese can shop for the same things as their counterparts in Japan or Taiwan. But modern China is plagued with disparities, which it must face if it is to progress beyond sheer material wealth for its urban dwellers. The vast population (see Population), deterioration of the environment (see The Environment), the threat posed by respiratory viruses such as SARS and bird flu (see Health), human rights and territorial disputes are just some of the pressing problems facing the Middle Kingdom today.

Doubletalk, Disparities & Discontent

The most basic of China's contradictions lies between the party's anachronistic political rhetoric and the reality of everyday capitalism. Issues like petty theft, prostitution and organized crime syndicates, long thought of as foreign problems, are increasing in modern China and sooner or later the party will have to acknowledge the dichotomy between policy and parlance.

Undoubtedly there is more wealth in China now than ever before, but with more money and education people want greater social freedom and, if this is not forthcoming, it threatens to tear apart the CCP. For all the cell phones, designer apartments and luxury cars found in the cities, little of this newfound wealth has made its way to the rural masses. The gap between rich coastal cities and the poor rural interior is wider than ever and there is massive migration from poorer farming areas to the big cities, although most only manage to find work day-by-day, if at all. The shift away from heavy industry and reduction in state-owned enterprises has added to the numbers of discontented, unemployed transient workers. Their anger is further fueled by the corruption that seems to penetrate every level of the system. In 2001 a group of workers in Dongbei province staged a huge demonstration, which resulted in little but the arrest of the ringleaders. If the interests of these groups continue to be ignored they may be the greatest threat to the system.

Human Rights

Although China's economic growth is making it increasingly easy for the developed world to forget about its human rights abuses and Asian foreign policy, these issues have certainly limited its international standing. Don't be fooled by all the neon lights and Western amenities - internally, China is still a police state where media (including the Internet) is restricted, religions are suppressed and political beliefs can send you to jail. There are estimated to be hundreds of thousands of political prisoners in China's gulagsin the northwest of the country, kept in harsh conditions and forced to work as slave labor.

Taiwan & Tibet

China's external outlook is another sensitive area and the continued occupation of Tibet and claim of Taiwan are regarded as internal rather than foreign policy. While the US initially supported Chiang Kaishek when he established the Republic of China in 1949, as the PRC has grown in stature, the rest of the world is succumbing to its wants and Taiwan is stifled in almost any international venture which it attempts. Financial ties remain strong and it is hoped these will win out over military might. However, the 2005 Taiwan Anti-Secession Law, which threatened use of force if Chen Shui-bian, Taiwan's first democratic leader, continues to move towards independence, showed China's true colors once again. Tibet, which was seized in 1950, is another tricky subject. The Dalai Lama fled to India in 1959 and the party proceeded to populate Tibet with Han Chinese in order to secure their border. When the Dalai Lama selected a new Panchen Lama in 1995, the chosen one was arrested and the Chinese government installed their own representative. Standing in front of Lamaism's grandest building, the Potala Palace, which overlooks Lhasa, you are confronted by the bold red flag of the PRC. Chinese guides speak of Tibet's "liberation,” while impoverished Tibetans pass you on the street, and the stunning old city of Lhasa resembles a Han enclave more everyday. The 2006 completion of the China-Tibet railway has further cemented the territory's status as a Chinese province.

Money Makes the World Go Round

"Internal” problems aside, China's growing economic stature is difficult to ignore for the financial fixers of the developed world. Entry into the World Trade Organization, hosting the 2008 Olympics and flourishing Special Economic Zones are all testament to China's improved international standing, but the problems which the country must really address lie with its tremendous population. If the country is to continue supporting its meteoric growth, it is crucial to ensure that wealth filters to the discontented urban and rural sectors. If not, then the danger is that people will once again question their social and political rights and rise against the system which they see as inherently corrupt and oppressive.

However, while inequality is perhaps now more stressed than ever, China is certainly a far more tolerant place than it was even 20 years ago, looking back to its past with more pride. Many of the old beliefs and teachings are managing to find their place in the modern China and for the first time, even farmers dare to dream beyond their station.   China truly has been a sleeping dragon for the past few centuries and now it is stirring as the rest of the world watches. If it can deliver the economic goods to a large proportion of the population, then the CCP looks set to survive and the world balance of power will look very different in 2020.

Geography

At 3.7 million square miles China is the world's fourth-largest country (and is bordered by 15 countries, including Afghanistan to the west, Mongolia to the north, North Korea to the east and Laos to the south). As you'd expect from a country stretching over such a vast area there is enormous geographic diversity. You'll find everything from the world's highest mountains, the Himalayas, to one of its lowest points, the Turpan Depression. There are lush jungles in Yunnan, tropical beaches in Hainan, the vast Gobi Desert in the northwest, frozen wildernesses in the northeast and expansive floodplains in the east. All the mountains, deserts and water, along with the poor quality of much of the country's soil, means that only about 14% of China's land is cultivable. The country has had a large population for a long time and this scarcity of farmable land has resulted in every possible strip being utilized, unintentionally giving rise to some incredible scenery, such as the impossibly steep rice terraces at Longji in Guangxi.

The Yellow River

Geology & Topography

Broadly speaking, with the Himalaya as the highest point in the west, the farther east you travel, the lower and flatter the land becomes, although there are mountainous outcrops across the country. Much of Xizang (Tibet) and Qinghai rest on the Tibetan Plateau, which has an average height of 12,000 feet and makes altitude sickness a serious possibility for travelers to this region. China holds half the world's limestone and the southwest's landscape is dominated by a limestone belt that stretches all the way from Yunnan through Guizhou, Hunan, Guangxi and Guangdong and even extends to parts of Fujian. Here lies the inspiration for many a Chinese scroll painting, most notably in the Li River region of Guangxi, where you'll find magnificently eroded karst pinnacles stretching for the sky.

Rivers

China has enough mountains and rainfall to provide a water source for most areas of the country, primarily distributed by its three major watercourses, although industry and the immense population has resulted in the pollution of many rivers and lakes. In spite of the generally high rainfall, droughts do occur, particularly in the arid northwest.

The Yangzi & Yellow Rivers

Tiger Leaping Gorge

The 4000 mile long Yangzi (known as changjiang, or Long River, in Chinese, an apt title for the world's third longest river) and the Yellow River (named for its silt-laden color) both run west to east, starting their lives high on the Tibetan Plateau. The Yangzi then turns south, skirting Szechuan and running through the mountains of Yunnan and makes its first bend through the 13,000-foot-deep Tiger Leaping Gorge near Lijiang. Little by little the river gains strength and is a mighty expanse of water by the time it reaches Chongqing, where it commences its journey through the famous Three Gorges, now dammed at Sandouping, near Yichang. The Long River supplies the massive Dongting and Poyang lakes with fresh water and then continues through the mighty cities of Wuhan and the former imperial capital of Nanjing, before spilling into the sea at Shanghai. The Yellow River's source is close to the Yangzi's, but soon diverges, running some 3,400 milesthrough Gansu, Ningxia, Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, Shaanxi and Henan before emptying out through Shandong in the east.

The Pearl River

A third significant waterway, the Pearl River, starts in the mountains of southern Yunnan and flows through Guangxi, and then, joined by tributaries from the north and east in Guangdong, opens out into the Pearl River Delta which reaches the sea south of Guangzhou. This tropically fertile region is one of China's most intensively cultivated areas, banana palms filling seemingly every available piece of land.

Natural Resources

China has a wealth of natural resources, including coal, oil, natural gas and iron ore, mainly found in the northwest, although, as the country has developed and its energy needs have increased, it has shifted from being an exporter to a net importer of oil. Inner Mongolia, Shanxi and Shaanxi are all heavily mined for coal, while the bulk of the oil reserves are under the Taklamakan Desert in Xinjiang. The Chinese have known about the burning properties of coal far longer than we have in the West, and while it has aided the country's industrial development, recently many smaller mines have been closed in response to safety concerns. There are also precious metal and stone deposits to be found, particularly in the west, and these have been utilized since early times to produce tools and fine arts.

The Environment

Environmental degradation poses a very real threat to the nation as increasingly frequent dust storms sweep through the north of the country and the rivers in many cities run black. Despite reducing its heavy industry base and the grand Three Gorges Dam hydroelectric project (which creates as many environmental problems as it solves), China is one of the world's most polluted countries. The government is now starting to address these issues with projects like the Green Great Wall that aims to combat soil erosion in the north of the country through reforestation, and by raising taxes on environmentally damaging products, from disposable wooden chopsticks to luxury cars. But there is still a long way to go.

Climate

Again, as you'd expect in such a vast country, there is much variety in China's weather, though away from coastal and mountainous areas it could be broadly categorized as a continental climate - that is, extremely hot in the summer and very cold in the winter.

The north enjoys roughly six months of heat, but has to endure cold weather for the rest of the year, with temperatures rarely creeping above freezing in Beijing between December and March. Almost all of the rainfall in this region comes in July and August.  This part of the country is also subject to dust storms during the spring and summer months, which can last days and leave everything coated with a fine layer of dust. They are exacerbated by the deforestation and desertification of the land to the north and west.

China's northwest offers the country's greatest extremes, from blistering 110°F in summer, to an arctic -45°F  in winter. Whenever you come, you're unlikely to see much precipitation in this extremely arid region, which is home to the deserts of the Gobi and the Taklamakan.

Central China gets exceptionally hot and steamy in the summer. The "Three Furnaces” along the Yangzi - Chongqing, Wuhan and Nanjing - are renowned for their Turkish-bath-like summers, though Shanghai is barely any less stifling. The same region gets bone-chillingly cold during the short winter, made all the more so by the damp and lack of central heating south of the Yellow River. Although Shanghai is warmed marginally by the sea, it can still feel bitter in the winter months. Winter is the driest part of the year, though all seasons see plenty of precipitation in this part of the country.

The south has something of a subtropical climate, with swelteringly hot and humid summers and comparatively mild winters that only last from January to March, though the farther you move away from the sea the colder it can get. The rainy season in the south varies according to exactly where you are, but generally falls between May and August. Hainan Island, nestled between China and Vietnam, lies on the same latitude as Hawaii and is warm throughout the winter and roasting in summer. The southeast coast is subject to typhoons (from taifeng, meaning great wind), the Asian equivalent of hurricanes, between June and October.

Flora & Fauna

China has a diverse range of wildlife befitting a country of its size, but if you come with great expectations you may be disappointed - there's less to see on a day-to-day basis than you'll find in some of the neighboring Southeast Asian countries. However, for those who have the time and energy to delve a little deeper, there are still treasures to be found and even a two-week city-based trip should show you some of country's offerings.

Causes for Concern

Several factors have contributed to the loss of Chinese flora and fauna. The sheer scale of humanity has meant that many species' habitats have been destroyed. The Chinese have consumed much of the original fauna, sometimes eating literally whatever they could find due to famine. Traditional medicinal beliefs relating to the efficacy of certain rare animal parts have further contributed to the demise of many species. The Communist regime has also played its part in the destruction of China's environment, often showing flagrant disregard for the laws of nature. Crazed periods such as the Great Leap Forward saw attention focused on increasing short-term output to ridiculous extremes - fields were overplanted and the crops and wildlife suffered. More recently environmentally damaging activities suchas logging, pollution and some questionable projects, including the Three Gorges Dam, have compounded the problem.

Habitats

As you'd expect from a country as vast as China, it has a diverse range of habitats, from wetland to desert, tundra to tropical forest and mountains to plains. Agriculture has replaced most of China's native forest, although there are still large expanses in the northeast that remain relatively untouched. The east is so highly developed that little of its original native habitat survives, but away from the coast there are still wild pockets, some of which have been designated national parks and forest reserves, such as Shennongjia in Hebei, which is reputedly home to a yeti-like creature! Out in the mountainous western regions there are extensive grasslands, which provide a festival of wild flowers in summer (July and August) and also support some fauna. The deserts of the northwest don't offer the same biodiversity as other parts of the country, but hold more wildlife than you might expect, including wild Bactrian camels.

National Parks & Conservation Projects

China was a late starter in the conservation race and, while the situation has certainly improved, it is already too late for some species and there is a long way to go to save those that remain. But all is not lost and hope remains. The first national park was established in Guangdong in 1956 and there are now over a thousand reserves, covering around 5% of China's land area, with dozens more planned. Reforestation projects are also starting in the hope of reducing desertification in the northwest. The work of a small number of dedicated individuals has highlighted the plight of some animal species, most notably the giant panda and this, in turn, has led to more widespread interest in wildlife and the environment, particularly among the younger generation.

The government is also realizing the severity of China's environmental situation and, after decades of abuse, seems to be coming round to a more sustainable approach to development. This is aided by the increasing importance of tourism in China, and as more and more upwardly mobile Chinese want to witness their country's native wildlife, there seems to be an economic as well as a conservation incentive. However, unless environmental tourism is responsibly managed, it could further degrade the environment (see Eco-Travel for more) and in a predominantly (and ever more polarized) poor country, people's own survival and prosperity is still the ultimate concern. Conservation areas are often poorly protected, meaning that poaching and logging still occur in these supposedly safe zones.

Conservation Organizations

If you're interested in contributing (whether financially or physically) or just learning more about some of the conservation projects around the country then try some of the organizations below. All are registered charities and staffed by volunteers so any help is welcome and if you're keen to donate to their cause you can do so online.

Friends of the Earth (www.foe.org.hk)

This successful global conservation organization runs a number of projects throughout Hong Kong and China. Some of their successes to date include preventing the building of a power station and a golf course in two of Hong Kong's country parks. They are also promoting pollution awareness and the use of unleaded fuel in the cities.

Greenpeace(www.greenpeace.org/china/en)

Greenpeace International has been publicizing issues such as environmental awareness, climate change, reusable energy and non-violent action here since 1997. Operations to date include the uncovering of illegal logging operations in Yunnan province, assistance in the development of ozone-friendly industrial technology and the promotion of sustainable energy sources, particularly wind-power.

Wildlife

While China is home to countless species you are only likely to encounter a small number of these, and to see most of them in the wild you'll have to invest some serious time and energy. This said, China has an enormous number of avian species and wherever you are you are likely to see a host of birds - even Hong Kong has its share and it's worth visiting the new Wetlands Park and Mai Po Marshes. If birding is your primary interest, it's worth heading to the remote northeast of the country, which is notable for herons and cranes that abound between April and September. The northeast also offers some of China's last remaining great wilderness and is home to bears, musk deer and reindeer, moose and tigers. In terms of flora, although there are plants and flowers throughout the country, for botanists the far west is the place to go. Ever since Joseph Rock, the 20th-century explorer, made it out here and catalogued what he saw, Yunnan's incredible floral biodiversity has attracted specialists. The grasslands here and in Szechuan and Tibet also support a host of animals, including wild yaks and argali sheep. The drier climes to the north of here in Inner Mongolia and Gansu give rise to little in the way of wildlife, but are traversed by that old desert favorite, the Bactrian or two-humped camel. It's impossible to list all the creatures that there are to see in China, let alone describe them, but below I've selected some of the plants and animals you're most likely to see, along with a list of endangered animals.

Animals & Plants in Chinese

Mythology & Medicine

The importance of plants and animals in Chinese culture can be seen in many aspects of the country's arts, mythology and medicine. Chinese mythology owes a great deal to its flora and fauna, both real and imagined. The Chinese Zodiac pays tribute to this allegiance, with people born under each sign supposedly exhibiting characteristics of that animal. Both animals and plants are deemed to hold certain attributes and these are recorded in history through statuary such as Bixi, the enduring and strong tortoise, and cranes, which represent happiness and longevity. Traditional Chinese medicine makes great use of both flora and fauna, from mountain herbs to animal parts. Ironically many of the supposed benefits are based on the perceived strengths of certain creatures - the tiger is seen as wily, virile and powerful, thus these qualities can be attained by its consumption. The talents of various creatures are also put to use in different forms of martial arts, from crane to tiger.

Flora

Bamboo - This unique fast-growing woody grass is found all over southern China and is inextricably entwined in Chinese history, symbolizing regeneration. Bamboo is part of everyday life and is used to this day in everything from cooking to scaffolding. There are countless varieties; the graceful "phoenix tail,” which you'll find around Guilin and Yangshuo, is one of the most beautiful. Walking through a misty bamboo thicket as it creaks and groans is an enchantingly Chinese experience.

Bamboo

Banyan - This powerful parasitic tree begins life as a seed dropped high in the branches of another tree. It then trails roots down to the ground and in time surrounds and envelopes other trees, sometimes melding several into one and creating the shade for which they are celebrated. Banyans are associated with Buddhist history and often form the focal point of villages or temples - locals frequently take some respite from the sun and enjoy a game of Chinese chess beneath them.

Chrysanthemum - Chrysanthemum flowers are familiar in many parts of the world but here can be found almost everywhere. They bloom in late autumn and many cities have flower exhibitions during this time. To the Chinese, they are considered medicinal, used in tea and often served as a delicacy.

Lotus

Lotus- The delicate lotus flower (or water lily) is striking and found in most parts of lowland

China. Lotus ponds can be seen in most parks and public gardens throughout the country and the roots make for a tasty vegetarian snack commonly used in cooking. You'll also see the distinctive salt-shaker-style pod in local food markets.

Orchid - The orchid is prevalent in Southeast Asia and has long evoked exotic images of the East. Its manifold varieties are appreciated by botanists and gardeners the world over and fetch high prices. Orchids have grown for thousands of years in China and can been seen throughout the seasons, particularly in the south.

Osmanthus - The tree which gives Guilin its name has a sweet-smelling blossom and adds a splash of color to the city in autumn. Its intoxicating fragrance has been written about through the ages, and the flowers are used to produce both tea and wine.

Peony - The city flower of Luoyang, the peony is also one of China's national flowers, and there are over 500 varieties in the country.

Wintersweet - As one of China's most popular floral species, the wintersweet is a common sight in Yunnan and Szechuan, where its hardiness allows flowering even in the snow.

Fauna

Yaks

While China has a fascinating array of different species, many of which are very rare or endangered (see below), it's far more likely that you'll come across the country's more common birds, insects and domestic animals. Some of the more spectacular bird species include cormorants (see Yangshuo, Adventures On Water), cranes, herons and kingfishers, as well as larger birds of prey such as eagles. Of the insects you may encounter, the praying mantis is probably the most fascinating and comes in a range of colors, from dusty brown to lurid green. The insect's name derives from it's seeming to be prostrated in prayer and it is renowned for its predatory nature, especially the female, which often kills the male post-copulation. Dragonflies and butterflies are also abundant throughout China, and the south claims some of the largest in the world, including the giant atlas moth butterfly whose wingspan can measure over eight inches. In parkland areas you're likely to see squirrels and, if you're lucky, deer. For those traveling into western mountain regions, you'll likely encounter yaks, both wild and domesticated and, if you're southward-bound, you may see monkeys. China's rivers also offer an array of wildlife, including river dolphins (see list below), sturgeons and even alligators.

Endangered Species

Brown Eared Pheasant - China has a quarter of the world's 196 species of pheasant, including the rare brown eared variety. It is unique to China and lives in high mountain coniferous forests in Shaanxi and Hebei provinces.

Chinese Alligator - The presence of alligators in China's Yangzi River may come as a bit of a surprise to many, but these reptiles once filled the waterways. Changing environments and dam construction have all played their part in the large population decline to less than 100 in the wild. They still inhabit parts of the Yangzi in Anhui and a research and breeding center has been established to help increase awareness and numbers.

Cranes - Cranes are large and spectacular birds and have cultural significance throughout the world (symbolic of new life and of babies in the West and of longevity and happiness in China). They are noisy, colorful and like to "dance.” Worldwide, there are 15 species, of which 11 are threatened. Eight of these species breed or winter in China, and three of them are endangered - the Siberian crane, the sarus crane and the red-crowned crane.

Crested Ibis - The crested ibis is among the 50 most endangered birds, with fewer than 250 mature individuals worldwide. There are none left in their native habitat in Japan, and only a handful breeding in the Qingling Mountains of China. The government has invested heavily in their preservation and, with help from the WWF, these beautiful birds may just survive.

Golden Monkey - This small golden-coated monkey's distinctive up-turned nose has earned it a nickname of the 'snub nose' monkey. By the mid-1980s it was estimated that only 200 were left in the wild, but, after successful breeding projects and aid from the government, their population has increased dramatically to over 800 in 2006.

Grey Baiji (Yangzi River Dolphin) - With only five left in captivity and probably fewer than 100 in the wild, China has all but lost one of the world's most unusual mammals. Pollution, increasing river traffic and dam construction have all contributed to the demise of the baiji and it seems it will soon be gone forever.

Red Panda (Lesser Panda) - A very distant relation of its giant namesake, the red panda is a cuddly raccoon-like creature that lives in the trees of southern China, the Himalayas, India and Nepal.

Siberian Tiger & South China Tiger- These are some of the world's most intriguing big cats, but are dangerously near extinction. The fur trade, demands of Chinese medicine and a rapidly vanishing habitat have all played a part in their demise. There are only an estimated 20 wild Siberian tigers in northern China, and 60 South China tigers along the Yangzi River valley. In spite of protection efforts, the future doesn't look bright for these beautiful creatures.

Siberian tiger

Snow Leopard – The snow leopard is amongst China's most endangered animals. while their pelts fetch as much as US$50,000 on the illegal fur market, their bones are also popular as a traditional Chinese medicinal remedy, factors which when combined with decreasing habitat have seen their numbers dwindle. Now protected, and bred in captivity, some increase in numbers is being seen, but it's highly unlikely you'll ever see them in the wilderness of their Gansu, Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia and Tibetan Plateau ranges.

The Giant Panda

The giant panda is China's most famous and one of its most endangered species. Numbers have been dwindling since they were hunted by both Chinese and foreigners at the start of the 20th century, although deforestation has been the greatest recent threat – over 50% of their habitat was lost between 1974 and 1989. However, since the plight of our furry black and white friends was brought to the world's attention in the 1980s, some of their habitat has been protected. Their range used to extend from Beijing as far south as Yunnan, but today they are confined to parts of Shaanxi, Szechuan and Gansu. Estimates suggest that there are about 1,600 pandas left in the wild but, due to their remote habitats, the accuracy of these figures is uncertain. There are 188 pandas in captivity around the world and, with new breeding and research centers, international recognition and the WWF, things are beginning to look up for these cuddly looking creatures, but there is still a long way to go in order to rebuild their numbers. The centers aim to help breeding problems and assist research, with the ultimate goal of reintroducing the pandas in to the wild. In April 2006, the first ever captive panda was released in the Qingling Mountains in Shaanxi and more releases are planned, although the jury is out as to whether this may be premature given the limited amount of habitat.

Increasing panda numbers involves preventing poaching and protecting panda habitats, but also ensuring that newborns manage to survive. Female pandas only reproduce once every two years and high infant mortality rates both in the wild and in captivity have hindered population growth. Although roughly half of all panda pregnancies result in twins, it's rare for two to survive, since the mothers reject the weaker sibling to nurture and protect the stronger. In captivity, one twin is taken away from its mother and sibling and re-introduced to the family at a later date, although this had been unsuccessful until new techniques including "twin swapping” and an accurate simulation of panda milk were introduced. Recent breakthroughs like these have led to a record number of births and an increased survival rate. Sixteen cubs were born in 2005, including a wonderful five sets of twins; all of them are still alive and well today. Success has also been enjoyed in the US, where baby Tai Shan was born in 2005 after his mom, Mei Xiang, was artificially inseminated. If captive numbers can reach 300 individuals, then this population should be able to maintain itself and its genetic diversity, though this is no viable substitute for wild populations.

Visiting the Pandas

Unless you have a number of months to go trekking into the wild, your best option is to visit one of the WWF-sponsored breeding and research centers at Chengdu and Wolong in Szechuan or at the Zhouzhi centerin Shaanxi (see Sightseeing, Around Xi'an). Here, you can see pandas in their natural habitat and, although they are still confined, the enclosures are large and the animals are well cared for. If you're not visiting these areas there are pandas in the zoos, but this is an experience far removed from a wild sighting, and conditions leave a lot to be desired.

Animal Protection Organizations

Animals get a rough deal in many parts of Asia and China is no exception, particularly because of the predilection for exotic animal parts as remedies used in TCM. The websites listed below offer information and ways to help animals in China:

Animals Asia (www.animalsasia.org). This Hong Kong-based charity established in 1998 runs a variety of animal welfare programs in China. China Bear Rescue has helped over 200 bears in China escape a torturous life of captivity. There is still a huge medicinal market for bear bile and many undergo the horrific technique of bile extraction known as 'free dripping.'

WWF (www.wwf.china.org). Although they are most readily associated with pandas in China, the WWF is involved in wide-ranging projects throughout the country that aim to protect various animals through a variety of means, including preserving their habitats, rehabilitation and education.

Population

In 2 AD China's population was estimated at nearly 58 million by the world's first large-scale census. In spite of famine, plague, epic natural disasters and mass exodus, the population has grown steadily since then and today stands at over 1.3 billion people, making it the world's most populous nation. In spite of a quarter-century of the one-child policy, it looks as if it will maintain pole position until at least the middle of the century, when India may take the lead.

The One-Child Policy

Overpopulation led to the radical step of the one-child policy in 1979. It stated that couples had to obtain permission before trying to have a child and if they failed to do this then the pregnancy would be terminated. Minority families living in the countryside were (and are) allowed two children, but in the cities if families had more than one child they had to pay punitive taxes. Although the policy has been effective in limiting population growth, it is China's tremendous number of people that has allowed its meteoric development. Along with the associated problems of gender imbalance and Little Emperors (see below), the aging population has led to fears that China will lose the competitive edge afforded by its vast numbers. As people enjoy more wealth and social freedom, they also want to choose how many children they can have, with two being the popularly cited number among the urban elite. In response to these factors, regulations have been relaxed a little and couples whose first child is a girl and who meet other requirements such as waiting for four years after their first-born, can now have a second child. There are suggestions that the policy may be scrapped altogether in the near future, but the official party line says nothing of the kind.

Gender Imbalance

Boys were always favored over girls as in marriages the bride's family had to pay a dowry and the new couple would live with and help to support the groom's family.  Limiting the number of children to one per family made having a boy crucial to the family line and led to thousands of female abortions and infanticides. Although ascertaining a child's sex by ultrasound is theoretically illegal, in practice this procedure is available in China for less than US$100 and is commonplace. Thus many couples wait to see the child's sex and then only proceed with the pregnancy if it's a boy. The result of this isn't yet fully recognized, but even the government admits that there are 119 boys born for every 100 girls and already China has some 60 million more men of reproductive age than women.

Little Emperors

In the countryside the policy means that there are fewer people to work the fields, a problem exacerbated by rural to urban migration. In the cities some families are now enjoying prosperity unimaginable in their parents' time but have to focus all the love that used to be spread among many children onto their single (or, if they're lucky, two) offspring. This is evident in the legion of overfed, spoiled young "emperors” being carted around expensive shopping centers.

People

The Han

The Han was one of China's earliest and greatest dynasties and lends its name to the ethnic group which makes up 93%of the population today. One of the words for the Chinese language, hanyu literally means Han language. The Han are the people of the Middle Kingdom and for the longest time considered most of the other minority groups as insignificant but savage barbarians. Central China is the Han heartland, but in politically sensitive areas like Tibet, there are incentives to attract Han people to settle there and help maintain the region's "loyalty.” Through the course of history encroachments by outside influences were subsumed into the all powerful Han culture.

The Minorities

In addition to the Han, the Chinese population also includes some 55 ethnic groups, which are as diverse as you'd expect for a land as vast as China. The southwest is where you'll find the greatest number of minorities, many of whom are more akin to the hilltribes of Southeast Asia than Han China. Guangxi, Guizhou and Yunnan are home to a number of China's most colorful ethnic groups including the Bai, the indigo-clad Dong, the Miao, the Naxi, the Yao and the Zhuang, all of whom have their own distinct culture, customs and architecture. In the north and northwest there are wilder groups, such as the nomadic Mongol and Tibetan herders, as well as Central Asian horsemen like the Kazakh and the Tajik. While central and eastern China are predominantly Han, other groups such as the Hakka retain importance in the region and examples of their traditional architecture are still to be found in the southeast and Hong Kong's New Territories.

Variously feared, ignored, persecuted and condescended to through history, the minority groups' biggest threat today comes from the migration of its youth to the big cities. During the early years of communism in China, there seemed little hope for minority groups and their culture, but these days the Chinese are much more curious about their other countrymen. Guesthouses, hiking and witnessing traditional life have all become big sellers and are, to some extent, helping to preserve minority cultures. And if you head off the beaten track (even just a few days in the valleys behind Longji) you'll find communities seemingly untouched by time where cultural traditions have been maintained for centuries. You can help preserve these traditions by buying goods made in the villages, asking for regional specialty foods and using local guides.

Religion & Philosophy

China's history is steeped in overlapping religious belief and philosophy. Starting with animist worship, religion developed through Taoism and Confucianism, the latter of which, with its hierarchical code of moral values, was more a philosophy than a religion. Outside influence brought Buddhism to the country and together these three belief systems are the foundation of religion in China – known as The Three Teachings. With the onset of communism, socialism was the new doctrine; religion in all its forms was suppressed and only practiced secretly. In the last 20 years, however, religion has reemerged, albeit in party-approved form and far from free. Indeed, several religious groups are outlawed in China, such as Falun Gong (meaning Wheel of Life, a quasi-Buddhist order), but they flourish in Hong Kong and Taiwan. The Three Teachings remain the most prominent beliefs in modern China, although some would argue they come second to capitalism, albeit with socialist characteristics! Christian missionaries and Muslim merchants have also had their parts to play in China's religious history, with the result that today most cities of any size have both churches and mosques to serve their sizeable Christian and Muslim populations. It is difficult to gauge the actual size of these groups, as only "official” religions are included in statistics, meaning that the millions who worship in secret according to other doctrines aren't counted. Although there are still devout followers of each of the Three Teachings, belief among the populace can seem ambiguous and Taoist temples can show elements associated with Buddhism and vice versa.

Buddhism

Though Indian in design and containing elements of Hinduism, like so many outside influences that reached China, Buddhism was adopted and adapted to fit Chinese beliefs and needs. Aspects of Buddhist dharma could be likened to Taoism and the fact that Buddhism didn't outlaw recognition of other gods allowed it to incorporate facets of traditional folk religions, and to prosper in China.

History in China

White Horse Temple

Buddhism came to China in 67 AD, and the first Buddhist place of worship is believed to have been the White Horse Temple in Luoyang, Shandong province, founded in 68 AD, by two Indian monks who arrived on a white horse. However, the religion only really gained popularity after the arrival of Bodhidharma, an Indian monk who is said to have journeyed to Shaolin Temple in the fifth century and is also credited with the development of Chinese martial arts. The Tang dynasty was Buddhism's great era in Chinese history and monks numbered in the hundreds of thousands. It was also during this period that China's great Buddhist cave art flourished, most spectacularly at Longmen near Luoyang in Shandong province, at Dunhuang in Gansu province and at Dazu in Szechuan province.

Life of Sakyamuni

Buddhism is a religion borne of Sakyamuni, a Nepali prince, also known as Siddhartha Gautama. Having been sheltered from the harsh realities of life by living within a palace, Siddhartha was shocked by his first glimpses of the outside world and renounced his earthly possessions in the search for release from the earthly cycle of life, death and re-birth. After several years as an ascetic, Sakyamuni realized that physical vigilance in the form of fasting, contortion and the like were not the answer. Finally he achieved nirvana (enlightenment) under the bodhi tree in Bodhgaya in Bihar, India, and became Buddha (the Enlightened One), though he never claimed to be anything more than a man. He then gave sermons at Sarnath on the banks of the Ganges, where he spoke of realizing the existence of suffering and finding the dharma, or path to enlightenment, through meditation and giving up the desire for all worldly things. Sakyamuni spent the remainder of his life traveling around the Ganges floodplains in northeastern India, teaching and receiving visitors.

Sakyamuni

Basics of Buddhism

Buddhism is based on realization of the Four Noble Truths: Life means Suffering; The Origin of Suffering is Attachment; The Cessation of Suffering is Attainable; and The Path to the Cessation of Suffering. The way to achieve enlightenment is detailed in the Eightfold Path. Pinning down exactly what enlightenment constitutes is a tricky one, but could be described as an omniscience of all beings, in all their lives, the consequences of their actions and thus the symbiosis inherent in the cosmos!

Schools of Buddhism

Yellow Hat monks

Buddhism has many forms, the most significant of which are mahayana(Greater Vehicle), as practiced in China, and theravada (Lesser Vehicle), prominent in Southeast Asia. Theravada is the version which originally arrived in China, but its focus on gaining nirvana as an individual had little hold with the regimented group mentality prominent in the Middle Kingdom. Thus, mahayana, which indicated that release could only come as a whole, and that arhats (known in China as luohan) and bodhisattvas (enlightened beings who choose to stay on earth) would remain on this earth to guide others, was far more suited to China. Over time, bodhisattvas and arhats came to be worshipped themselves and local deities were brought into the fold.

Chan (Zen) Buddhism, a school of meditation, also found its feet in China and has gained standing around the world, facilitated by its belief that you don't have to be a monk or recluse to achieve enlightenment. Tibet also managed to absorb Buddhism into its pre-existing shamanistic religion, Bon, greatly aided by Guru Rinpoche, an Indian Buddhist, who was invited to the kingdom in the seventh century. The various Tibetan Buddhist schools are collectively known as Lamaism,  of which Gelugpa (or Yellow Hat) is the most prominent today and includes the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama among its following.

Confucianism

Confucianism is seen as the most Chinese of its belief systems and, though it was never intended as a religion, if you visit a Confucian temple and see people worshipping him, you'd struggle to see it purely as a philosophy. Confucianism has also had an effect outside of the Middle Kingdom, especially in Korea. Though there is doubt as to whether Confucius actually ever lived, what is certain is that his system of hierarchical values continues to affect modern Chinese thought and interaction.

The Life Of Confucius (551-479 BC)

Confucius (kong fu zi in Chinese) was supposedly born in 551 BC and experienced poverty in the early part of his life, only managing to become a junior official through hard study. Disheartened by the chaos and disorder as the Zhou dynasty declined into the Warring States Period (see Zhou Dynasty), Confucius sought to implement a system that would restore order. To this end he opened a number of private schools where he instructed thousands of students in his code of moral values. His style of teaching was more in tune with modern methods than those of the day, promoting elicitation and student participation over traditional learning by repetition. Confucius traveled to the various states and gave lectures on his beliefs about hierarchy within all structures, from families to governments. After the rejection of his advice by many of the state leaders, Confucius returned to his ancestral home town, Qufu, in Shandong province, as an old man. He continued his teachings and his following grew. It was also during this time that he contributed his thoughts to the writings of the day, now known as The Five Classics, which includes the Book of Songs and the I Ching, or Book of Changes. The Analects is a collection of Confucius' sayings published many years after his death which, along with the rest of the Confucian canon, became required reading for civil officials.

His Philosophy

Confucius' philosophy directed that if the correct hierarchy was in place and individuals treated and respected one another according to this structure, then life would be harmonious. At the top of the scale was the emperor, moving down through scholars and officials, peasants, merchants, craftsmen, soldiers, slaves and, at the bottom of the ladder, the underclasses, which included beggars and prostitutes. He placed major importance on an appropriate obedience and sense of duty within these relationships, particularly between subjects and their emperor, a wife and her husband, children and their parents and younger and older brothers. His belief was that only between friends should there be equality. Respect was based on the five Confucian virtues of benevolence, propriety, righteousness, trustworthiness and wisdom. Confucius didn't advocate ancestor worship, but the emphasis on respecting one's family elders has helped to maintain its importance in Chinese culture.

Confucianism as a Religion

Confucius didn't see his dictates as religious and it wasn't until after he died that he became something of a deity, with temples around the country dedicated to him. Religion aside, his impact on the Chinese bureaucracy is evident in the fact that his teachings formed the basis of civil service examinations until the early 20th century. Though shunned during the early years of communism and the Cultural Revolution, Confucian values remain in some senses and worship has re-emerged in recent times. For proof of this, look no further than Qufu, a town devoted to Confucius, where you'll find hordes of visitors exploring a mansion complex that almost rivals the Forbidden City and a vast forest containing the graves of the entire Confucian clan (which numbers in the thousands). While often rebuffed during his lifetime, and intermittently purged through history, Confucius' theories have influenced and affected the course of Chinese thinking for over two thousand years.

Taoism

Taoism is China's only native religion (since Confucianism isn't a religion as such), and was developed by the semi-mythical figure, Lao Zi, who is traditionally held to have lived in the sixth century BC. Lao Zi (Old Boy) is also credited with writing Taoism's elemental work, the Tao Te Jing (The Classic of the Way and Power), though this was probably compiled some time after his death and is thought to be more of a collaboration than a book by a sole author. Zhuang Zi was another great proponent of Taoism, who supposedly lived in the fourth century BC, rejecting rank and luxury for a humble life of reflection. His book of parables, The Zhuang Zi, is Taoism's second great text.

Though Taoism began as a religion without deities, over time it acquired a plethora of them, most notably the Eight Immortals. It also attracted imperial patronage and established a formalized priesthood. Taoism was soon an all-encompassing religion, its flowing energy nestled somehow next to the rigidity of Confucianism. But with increasing popularity came dilution and the quest for immortality became the primary goal for some Taoists, leading purists to separate themselves from the mainstream.

Taoist Beliefs

Taoism's beliefs are difficult to express succinctly, but are based on trying to attain harmony within the natural world, balancing its hard, male yang aspects with the soft, fluid, female yin facets. The taiji, commonly known as the yinyang in the West, is a symbol of this harmony.  The smaller inner circles represent the presence of yin within yang and vice versa. Taoism centers on the belief that there is a unifying force or energy which flows through everything. The Taoist aims to ride the Tao (the Way) to a long, healthy life and even immortality, believing that worldly possessions and desires can cause a being to lose sight of this path. This belief means that Taoists often lived reclusive existences. While Taoist harmonious ideals and the concept of wu wei (achievement through inaction) are pacifist in essence, the religion has also fostered its own form of martial arts, born in the mountain temples of Wudang Shan.

Visiting Temples

The Happy Buddha, Maitreya

Visiting a working temple in China can seem like a daunting and confusing prospect. There are a pantheon of gods and all manner of associated rituals, but as a foreigner you'll be forgiven most of your faux pas, and in temples popular with tourists many Chinese visitors may appear to have little more idea than you! Dress conservatively, although you may well see those who don't.

The entrances of Buddhist temples are often presided over by a pair of metal or stone lions. The entrance hall usually has a statue of the "Happy Buddha,” as Maitreya has become known, along with menacing statues of the Four Heavenly Kings. Buddhist temples are built along a central axis with a series of courtyards and lesser shrines leading to the most important and grandest hall at the rear. These halls usually hold statuary, which believers bow to with the hands clasped. The courtyards are separated by screened gateways in order to prevent bad spirits (who can only travel in straight lines) from entering. In theory you should walk clockwise around Buddhist temples but this isn't always possible and you'll see plenty of locals going the other way.

You'll see a host of gods in most Buddhist temples, though Sakyamuni, with his tightly knit hair, is the most significant and is often shown in past, present and future form, while Guanyin (Kun Iam in Cantonese), the Goddess of Mercy, is often depicted with hundreds of arms and is found in many temples. In Taoist temples you might see statues of its founder, Lao Zi, along with the Eight Immortals, and in the south the Taoist Goddess of Fishermen and the Sea, known variously as A-Ma, Mazu and Tin Hau, is a prominent figure with numerous temples dedicated to her in Hong Kong, Macau and Fujian. Incense and ghost money are burnt in temples to all of the Three Teachings, either in large brick ovens or in ornate metal burners, usually found in the courtyards. You'll also people divining their future at temples in all kinds of ingenious ways, the most common of which is by shaking sticks in a wooden cup until one falls out!

Best Temples & Monasteries

White Cloud Temple, Beijing

Tibetan Lama Temple, Beijing

Puning Temple, Chengde

Eight Immortals Temple, Xi'an

Big Wild Goose Pagoda, Xi'an

Luohan Temple, Chongqing

Fengdu Ghost Temple, Three Gorges

Jade Buddha Temple, Shanghai

West Garden Temple, Suzhou

Lingyin Temple, Hangzhou

Temple of Six Banyans, Guangzhou

Po Lin Monastery, Lantau Island, Hong Kong

Wong Tai Sin Temple, Hong Kong

A-Ma Temple, Macau

Pond resident, Po Lin Monastery

Beliefs & Superstitions

The Chinese are inherently superstitious and this manifests itself in everything from religious interpretation to modern business practice. In Chinese certain numbers sound the same as other words and these are then taken to be lucky, or unlucky. Six, eight (which brings money) and nine (longevity) are good numbers, while four (which sounds like death) is a bad number. The importance placed on these numbers cannot be overstated and telephone numbers or addresses with favorable digits command high prices. Equally, few Chinese will want to live on the fourth floor of a building. Many Chinese believe that, although your destiny is ordained, a little luck can help you skip a few reincarnations. Gambling here can be obsessive, with people betting all they own and more (see Macau, Gambling). The lunar calendar also plays a significant role in modern life, and weddings, business meetings and holidays are planned accordingly.

The Chinese Zodiac

The Chinese Zodiac is based on the lunar calendar and gives each of its 12 years an animal name. If you are born within this year you are said to possess the qualities of that animal. Note that the Chinese New Year usually falls a month or two after the Western version, so if you were born in January 1973, as I was, you are actually a rat, not an ox!

Below is a brief description of each of the animal years, but if you're interested in further exploration head to an astrologer. Astrologers can be found in markets and parks throughout China and, if you give them your time and date of birth, they should be able to give you a precise rundown of who you are, what days are lucky for you and what lies in your future – take a translator!

What's Your Sign?

Rat – Usually clever, giving and diligent, but can be prone to laziness.

Ox – Independent, cool and stubborn, an ox will always finish a task.

Tiger – Self-assured and adventurous, tigers live up to their name.

Rabbit – Quiet, shy and family-loving, rabbits need reassurance and love.

Dragon – Dragons are confident and able leaders and usually gracious.

Snake – Often selfish, charismatic and hard-nosed; you wouldn't want to upset a snake.

Horse – Horses are usually witty and well motivated, but emotional.

Goat – Money-loving goats are charmers but don't often turn up on time.

Monkey – Monkeys are daring and love a challenge but, despite their intelligence, they can be erratic.

Rooster – Diligence and punctuality are important to roosters, although they can speak a little too freely and are prone to feeling emotional.

Dog – Defensive, loyal and kind, they really do make best friends.

Pig – Calm and helpful, pigs may not be very intelligent but they are sincere.

Fengshui

Fengshui (wind and water), or geomancy, is the art of alignment to create the best flow of energy and can operate on a room, building or city scale. Fengshui is based on certain precepts, such as having a mountain or hill behind the property and water flowing toward the front. Hong Kong's HSBC Tower is famous for its fengshui – the unobstructed view to the water allows money to flow freely in! In a room, certain objects, such as a correctly placed fishbowl, can improve the energy flow, while a bagua, mirror, will repel evil spirits. You'll see geomancy in practice throughout the country and can even arrange fengshui tours in Hong Kong and Yangshuo

Culture

Architecture

Since the onset of dynastic times, architectural design has been of key significance as an indicator of status within the imperial structure. Buildings have been added to, altered or destroyed according to the mood of the dynasty. Outside influences have also had their part to play and there are prominent examples of Mongolian, Tibetan, British, French and German architecture found in China. In the last hundred years, wars, the Cultural Revolution and most recently the country's spectacular economic growth have eliminated much historic architecture. Despite this, a number of outstanding buildings, such as the Forbidden City and the Temple of Heaven, have survived and underwent face-lifts for the Olympics, while amazing modern structures were also built for the event.

Palaces & Temples

Palaces and temples were mapped out in accordance with the principles of fengshui and were usually walled complexes containing square or rectangular buildings, with a few notable exceptions such as the circular Temple of Heaven in Beijing. Inside the city walls, an inner central walled quarter was used for the emperor and was always built on a number of rising platforms. The highest point seated the great emperor, as this brought him closer to heaven and no other building was allowed to exceed this in the city.

Traditional Architecture

Cities and the traditional buildings within them were designed using a standard set of principles. Harmony was of key importance, as was creating a balance with the environment. Fengshuiwas essential (see above) and architectural designs were chosen so as not to disrupt the cosmos. Buildings were usually constructed horizontally rather than vertically, in contrast to today's skyscrapers. Together, low-rise buildings formed a network of narrow streets known as hutong, including everything from homes to shops. The grid-like rows provided shelter from the elements and were also believed to afford spiritual protection. Solid insulated brick was used in the north while open eaves with internal courtyards were prevalent in the south. To see some of China's best preserved hutong, head for Beijing.

Rural Architecture

Although the principal architectural aspects remain the same from north to south, a number of variations can been seen throughout China today. The Dong and Miao of the southwest use local cedar wood, building their houses vertically and it's not uncommon to see two- or three-story houses. They are also famous for their unique Wind and Rain Bridges (see Longji), built to prevent evil spirits from crossing the river and entering the town. In the southeast the Hakka constructed vast encampments containing huge circular stone mansions.These roundhouses sometimes contained up to 600 people and provided perfect defense from both invaders and the harsh climate; a few are still inhabited today. Some outstanding examples of traditional architecture remain in the Huizhou-style houses of Shexian and Yixian, near Huangshan (see Huizhou Architecture).

Foreign Influences

Over the ages many foreign communities have settled in China, bringing outside architectural styles and techniques with them. Islamic architecture retains some of its typical features, but also incorporates Chinese themes – look no further than Xi'an's Great Mosque where the minaret resembles a pagoda. The 19th century saw the arrival of the Europeans. Guangzhou, Hong Kong, Macau, Shanghai and Xiamen still have well-preserved examples of colonial architecture and the juxtaposition of Eastern and Western styles gives a very different feel to parts of these cities. For the best of the British, head to the Bund in Shanghai, which is more akin to Liverpool (UK) than the Orient. Today, it houses some of the most expensive properties in Shanghai and boasts a range of architectural styles from Neo-Classical to Art Deco.

Communist Architecture

Communism also had its part to play in China's architecture and saw the development of a bland, boxy Soviet style focused on functionality. Beijing's Great Hall of the People and Tian'anmen Square remain as monuments to those days, while the ancient glory of the dynastic period looks on from the Forbidden City.

Modern Architecture

Marriott Hotel, Shanghai

From the late 1970s onwards, China opened its economy, urbanization erupted and simple, cheap accommodation was needed for the masses. As the population swelled, buildings began to creep upwards and, today, China's urban skylines have been transformed into a lofty wash of neon. Architecture has become a highly competitive field and the tallest, biggest and funkiest all battle it out in the skylines of Shanghai and Hong Kong (see The Sky's the Limit), albeit still paying homage to tradition in their use of the principles of fengshui.

Bronzes

Excavations to date indicate that bronze emerged in China during the Shang dynasty (1600-1122 BC). Before this time vessels for everyday use were made from pottery, but the increased stability and settlement of the Shang allowed for the melding of copper and tin to form bronze. Craftsmen soon developed sophisticated casting techniques and agricultural equipment, cookery utensils and weapons were all fashioned from bronze.

Shang Dynasty bronze

The Shang also used bronze to produce ceremonial vessels used solely by the king to make offerings to the spirits. These vessels were highly detailed and often depicted animals, although, as time progressed, the images became more abstract. By the time of the Zhou dynasty (1122-221 BC), styles had become more varied and items were cast in different shapes, featuring both simple and extravagant décor. Some of the best historic bronze exhibits in the country are found in Beijing's National Museum, the Shanghai Museum and the Shaanxi History Museum in Xi'an. Although the composition now varies greatly from Shang dynasty bronze, the alloy remains popular to this day and you'll see statuary around the country fashioned from it.

One of China's most impressive bronze collections was discovered in Henan province in 1976. The tomb of China's first female general (who was also wife to one of the Shang kings) was unearthed and over 200 bronze weapons and tools, 600 small sculptures, 7,000 cowry shells, 16 sacrificial victims and six dogs were found!

Ceramics

For centuries the Western world has been lured by the splendor of China's ceramics and it even adopted the country's name as a title for its most prized product: porcelain.

Through the ages different forms and styles evolved that reflect both internal and outside influences, along with technological advances. Some of the best examples of Chinese porcelain are found in the Forbidden City's display, at the Shaanxi History Museum and Shanghai Museum.

Yuan Dynasty vase

History

China's Neolithic period saw simple techniques that used black, white and red surface painting on simple everyday utensils. By the rise of the Western Zhou dynasty in 1100 BC, a kiln style of glazing had been developed, although this wasn't perfected until the Han dynasty. It was during the Tang dynasty that ceramic production started to increase and become more refined. With copper and bronze being used for coin production, potters found a rise in demand for practical everyday products. They started to use top quality porcelain and were keen to make their works more colorful and creative, developing a tri-color glaze (san cai) that remains one of the Tang's greatest legacies. In addition to day-to-day ware, ornaments and statuettes of horses and other animals were modeled in tri-color, and these techniques are still in use today. During the Song, the art of ceramics was further refined and many regional styles and specialties began to develop, using a simpler and more elegant style, favoring one color rather than three. However, it was the outside influences of the Yuan dynasty that saw one of the greatest developments in Chinese ceramics – the cobalt blue under-glaze. This simple blue and white glaze has become symbolic of Chinese pottery and is common the world over. But, with the collapse of the Yuan and the instability of the early Ming years, both quantity and quality declined.

Once the Ming dynasty asserted its rule, ceramics production was reborn and the Yuan art of cobalt glaze and Tang tri-color technique were reinvented and perfected. The Forbidden City began placing large orders for top quality china and founded an imperial kiln at Jingdezhen in Jiangxi province. Only the finest quality porcelain was used and the production of each piece became highly skilled and specialized, depicting intricate scenes of imperial and everyday life, as well as phoenixes and dragons. The market grew when two Portuguese ships were captured by the Dutch in 1604 and their cargo of 20,000 pieces of Ming pottery went up for auction. Buyers included England's King James I and the French King Henri IV. Demand for this distant and exotic art form soared. Despite the collapse of the Ming in 1644, the imperial kilns continued to prosper, catering to an international market and, although they were forced to close during the Japanese occupation, they have since re-opened and still produce some of the world's most highly skilled ceramic pieces.

Jade & Lacquer

Jade and lacquer date back beyond the Shang dynasty (1600-1122 BC). Jade was used to make everything from tools to ornaments and its enduring nature led to it becoming associated with longevity. As a result of this, the Shang used jade to make pi, flat circular ornaments which were placed in graves. Lacquer is produced using the sap of the lac tree and was another popular decorative art, most commonly used to coat small boxes, which were then inlaid with precious metals. Both jade and lacquer were so popular that they continue to be fashioned and treasured to this day.

Painting

Classical Chinese painting has a long history and conjures up images of a mystical country with mist-shrouded peaks dropping down to waterfalls surrounded by bamboo and blossoming trees. Painting in China isn't just limited to the classical form and in the past century the art has moved through Communist Red Art to abstract modernism, although traditional styles remain popular.

Tools of the Trade

There are said to be four great treasures in traditional Chinese painting; the brush, the ink, the inkstone and the paper or silk used. Only the finest horse hair was used for the brushes and it was then glued to pieces of bamboo, a traditional method that dates back to the fourth century BC. The ink was made by combining pine soot and glue, which was then left to harden, making a solid tablet of ink. The ink was then rubbed with water on an inkstone to create the correct consistency. Silk was the traditional medium, although this restricted creativity, since it was permanent as soon as applied. The invention of paper in 106 AD changed this and allowed for more artistic freedom.

Tang Dynasty Art (618-907 AD)

The Tang dynasty saw the first real development of Chinese art. Under the Tang, China was a powerful, stable empire providing a perfect foundation for the arts which were essentially produced by scholars, high officials and poets. Arts were encouraged by the court and portrait painting gained in popularity. Paintings depicted emperors and their families and also serve as excellent historical documents reflecting court life from this period.

Painting by Ma Yuan

Song Dynasty Art (960-1279 AD)

With the collapse of the Tang came the rise of the Song dynasty, whose artistic legacy has been handed down to China's modern painters. Their focus was on the landscape and they wanted to capture the vast expanse of China's geography. Huge areas of the canvas were left blank in order to create space, depth and to capture light, aspects that are clearly reflected in works by Ma Yuan (1165-1225 AD).Academies were established under royal patronage and a number of emperors, most famously Huizong, adopted the hobby.

Yuan, Ming & Qing Dynasties (1279-1911)

With the invasion of the Mongols and the rise of the Yuan dynasty, many officials were forced to retire, allowing for a change in composition and subject matter. Although the traditional brush and ink techniques remained of key importance, images became more personal, with an emphasis on experimentation. Detailed images of plum blossoms, bamboo, flowers and birds fused with color washes became common and a passion for mixing calligraphy with their canvases added to the Yuan style. However, it was the rise of the Qing dynasty in the 17th century that first saw European influences merge with the earlier traditions and Western materials and subject matter became more common.

The 1900s

The biggest changes to Chinese art occurred during the 20th century through contact with the Western world and the Communist ideals promoted by Russia. Artists began to paint their great leader, Mao, in stronger, bolder colors and used Western materials such as oil on canvas. Painting, like everything else, became a medium for political propaganda and a movement developed known as 'Red Art' – Shanghai's Propaganda Poster Art Center has an excellent collection.  Zhang Zhenshi's (1914-92) portrait of Mao has become an icon from this period and copies of it have stood at the entrance to the Forbidden City since 1950. Red Art is currently undergoing a revival in China and can be seen throughout the country's galleries and markets.

Modern Art

Modern art in China has been influenced by international styles and techniques, which have been fused with deeply embedded traditions to create powerful images of life today.  Modern Chinese paintings often reflect artists' frustration at the censored society in which they live and the turmoil of the last century. Good places to get a feel for China's modern art scene are at Beijing's hip Dashanzi district, Shanghai's Museum of Contemporary Art, Guangzhou's Guangdong Museum of Art and Shenzhen's Overseas Chinese Town.

Calligraphy

The artistic portrayal of Chinese characters has a long imperial tradition and still flourishes today. Calligraphy traditionally went hand-in-hand with poetry and was practiced by scholars, although emperors and court officials also spent years mastering the art.During the Tang dynasty, a united China allowed a standard script to emerge, and calligraphy was considered so important that the emperor added it to the list of criteria for assigning posts in the civil service. Today calligraphy is very much alive in modern China and you will see it everywhere, from the work of traditional masters in temples to artists on the street. For those hunting for exquisite ancient calligraphy, Shanghai Museum has some of the finest examples in the country.

Literature

Early Chinese literature is defined by philosophical works reputedly written by great masters such as Lao Zi, the founder of Taoism Confucius and their disciples. However there were exceptions to this quasi-religious theme such as Sun Zi's fifth-century-BC military treatise, the Art of War, and the extraordinary Historical Records, written by Sima Qian in the Han dynasty. The latter was an immense tome chronicling Chinese history from Huangdi, through the Shang and Zhou dynasties and up to his time. Historical Records enlivened its 130 chapters with biographies and constructed conversations (based on real events); its style was so engaging that it formed the basis for imperial historic works to follow. However, until the 15th century, books were written as scholarly works and remained inaccessible to the masses. In the Ming and subsequent Qing dynasties, a new, more vernacular language emerged and classics such as Journey to the West, Outlaws of the Marsh, The Romance of the Three Kingdoms and The Dream of the Red Chamber were written. These tales are still popular today, but reading books remained an elitist activity and it was only with the arrival of the social commentaries of  Lu Xun (1881-1936) on the literary scene that baihua (white language) emerged. Once the Communists emerged victorious, authors like Sheng Congwen (1903-86) found their literary freedom suppressed and little material of interest was produced, although Mao's Little Red Book is a fascinating insight into socialist doctrine. Since the 1980s, restrictions have relaxed, but many of the grittiest modern writers such as Wang Shuo don't have a legally published book to their name in China. See the booklist at the end for details of some of the classics, along with various other titles.

Poetry

With its tones and rhyming nature, Chinese is well-suited to poetry and the pictographic characters themselves add further sentiment. For this reason since the earliest times, poetry has been the preferred mode of written expression. The Book of Songs, accredited to Confucius, is the original Chinese poetic work and was quoted by scholars, envoys and philosophers alike. Chinese poetry reached its pinnacle under the Tang with the works of two starkly contrasting wordsmiths. Li Bai (701-762 AD) was a Taoist eccentric with a passion for nature and wine who embodied the poetic values of freedom, spontaneity and defiance of convention. Dufu (712-770 AD) was Confucian through and through, but his failed political career led him to appreciate the hardships of the common man and his poems reflect this. Li Bai and Dufu's differing styles and stances highlight the dichotomy of China through the ages – split between the rigid conventions of Confucian conformity and the romanticism and intuitive thought associated with Taoism. Born during the Song dynasty, Su Dongpo (1037-1101 AD) is perhaps the most famous of all Chinese poets, and was also a skilled calligrapher, painter and politician. Su's outspoken views saw him exiled more than once, but his minute attention to detail and the graceful nature of his poems continue to earn him adulation to this day.

Music

Whether you stumble across an opera performance in the park, or are taken by a catchy Canto-pop tune while shopping in Hong Kong, you're sure to come across local music of some kind on your trip to China and if you're a keen music fan you'll find plenty of styles to search out, from classical to pop.

Traditional Music

Visitors to China most commonly experience traditional music via opera performances, but this is only the tip of the iceberg and there are countless regional styles. Music in China dates back 6,000 years, and although some traditional instruments and melodies were lost in Qin Shi Huang's purge and again two millennia later during the Cultural Revolution, today it is enjoying a renaissance. Traditional Chinese music focuses on tone rather than melody and the scale is pentatonic, which is believed to be symbolic of the five elements of earth, fire, metal, water and wood. Instruments are divided into eight categories according to the material they are made from: bamboo, clay, gourd, metal, silk, skin, stone and wood. Regional varieties are based on one or more of the instrument types. Thus the south is famous for its silk strings and bamboo flutes, while the north is characterized by "blowers and drummers.” Popular traditional instruments that remain in use today include drums, the dizi (flute), erhu (silk-stringed violin), gongs, guqin (silk-stringed zither) and the pipa (silk-stringed lute).

One of the most relaxed ways to enjoy traditional music in China is at one of the daily performances which you'll find in parks and teahouses across the country. These range from organized performances for which you must pay, to impromptu shows by the locals – the Temple of Heaven grounds in Beijing and Hangzhou's lakeside parks are good places to try. Temples are often filled with the sound of gongs and chanting and are another place where you'll come across traditional music.

Opera

Although opera has a lengthy imperial history in China, it has long been enjoyed by the masses, unlike in the West,  and several different regional styles have developed, of which Beijing Opera is by far the best-known. Other famous styles include Cantonese and Szechuanese, the latter renowned for its deft mask changing. Stories generally focus on traditional tales such as the Outlaws of the Marsh and are designed to be easily understood as much through the over-emphasized actions of players as the words themselves – indicative of the fact that performances were played out in noisy teahouses and theaters. Traditionally, all roles were played by men and actors playing female characters had to wear special supports to make it appear as if they had bound feet – it took a year just to learn how to walk on these! The make-up is a work of art in itself and each actor spends hours perfecting it before the start of a performance. There are also some things you should watch out for in the characters' make-up – black represents loyalty, white is generally used for baddies, red for heroes, yellow for indecisive characters and a metallic sheen is given to those who have supernatural qualities.

Characters in the Beijing Opera

In the 20th century, film and then television brought opera to an even wider audience. Indeed, Beijing opera's history is closely intertwined with acrobatics and martial arts and some of China's biggest movie stars, like Jackie Chan, started their careers with traditional operatic training. Although the onset of modernity in China has detracted somewhat from interest in opera, it still features heavily on TV and radio and is hugely popular with the older generation.

If you're in the capital, it's easy enough to catch a tourist opera show, shortened to a more convenient 90 minutes and sometimes hilariously subtitled (see Beijing). Some performances are also held at tourist sites, such as the Master of the Nets Garden in Suzhou and these are worth attending for the surroundings as well as the show itself. But for more authenticity, visit a training school or seek out an original production, even if you don't stay for the whole thing. Many people find an hour and a half more than enough though. While the costumes are spectacular and the acrobatics astounding, the shrill pitch of the singing can be overwhelming. It is generally worth arriving at the theater a little before the performance as you may get the opportunity to see the performers preparing. Tickets for tourist performances cost in the region of $40-400/US$5-50 and can be bought at larger hotels, travel agencies and the venues themselves. Local performances are a different story and cost a fraction of those prices for a much longer show.

Protest Music

Not so long ago Chinese music was confined to Beijing Opera, revolutionary songs and party anthems (no, not that kind of party anthem, the Communist one …). In the late 70s when things started opening up, Taiwanese and Hong Kong tunes began to make their way to the mainland and they were accompanied by a trickle of foreign music tapes from returning exchange students and foreigners working in China. Little by little a new kind of music began to emerge, heavily influenced by the smuggled tapes and, all of a sudden, underground protest rock emerged. Cui Jian was a trumpeter who'd trained as a classical musician and joined the Beijing Symphony Orchestra, but was strongly influenced by Taiwanese Deng Lijun's (aka Teresa Teng) tunes and he diverted his attentions, formed a band and is now known as the Godfather of Chinese Rock. Cui's early songs were ostensibly about love but became anthems of democracy and his lyrics and tone have angered authorities more than once. Cui and a collection of other early pioneers opened the door for popular music in China and, while these days Canto-pop and Mando-pop tunes feed the masses, Beijing has continued its rock tradition and remains the best place in the country to see locally grown live music, in spite of its seemingly few venues. Beijing rock bands to look out for include the long-running, long-haired Cold Blooded Animal and neo-folk rock legends Second Hand Rose. Where? Bar and Yugong Yishan (see Beijing) are good venues to try, but check out that's Beijing or City Weekend for upcoming gigs.

Canto-Pop & Mando-Pop

Canto-pop is characterized by catchy tunes and romantic lyrics and, along with Taiwanese and Western pop, has heavily influenced modern mainstream Chinese music to produce mainland Mando-pop. Some of the biggest names in Chinese pop today are Aaron Kwok, Faye Wong and the multi-talented Andy Lau.

Acrobatics

Acrobatics have a long history in China, strongly tied to both Beijing Opera and martial arts, and even in today's cyber-struck age they never fail to confound. Students begin training as early as five to be supple, skillful and strong enough to perform the stunts you'll see and I always leave the show feeling distinctly inflexible! Shows usually involve a range of acts, including balancers, contortionists, jugglers, formation troupes and magicians, the latter of which tend to be the only weak link. Modern times have also led to modern stunts and you might also find motorcycle walls (and wheels) of death! There are regular tourist shows featuring famous troupes in Beijing and Shanghai).

Martial Arts

History & Heritage

Kung fu (gong fu or wushu) and tai chi came to the world from China and can be traced back thousands of years. Methods of fighting were detailed during the Zhou dynasty (1122-221 BC) and Taoist monks are thought to have practiced an art similar to tai chi around 500 BC. However, to understand the roots of modern kung fu we must move a little forward. Legend has it that an Indian monk by the name of Bodhidharma (known in Chinese as Damo) arrived at Shaolin monastery in the fifth or sixth century with the intention of introducing dhyana Buddhism (chan in China, and zen in Japan and the West; see Religion & Philosophy). However, his efforts were hindered due to the poor physical condition of the monks and so he instituted a series of physical exercises to counter the long hours spent poring over texts and meditating. These exercises then developed into forms of defense in response to attacks on monasteries. Later martial arts came in dramatic form through a fusion with acrobatics and Beijing opera. However, the Cultural Revolution took its toll and instructors were driven from the country. Salvation came through movies, which were initially only popular within China, but subsequently brought kung fu to the world's attention in the shape of Bruce Lee, who paved the way for modern martial arts movie stars.

Styles

Although there are hundreds of styles, Chinese martial arts can generally be categorized into two broad forms, which tie in with the Taoist concept of yin and yang (see Taoism). There are hard, or external, forms that focus on yang, or male, aspects and involve speed, muscular strength and aggression; and soft, or internal, styles that correspond to the yin (female) and stress the movement of qi (energy) to overcome opponents. The line between hard and soft is not always clear, something which is evident in the dichotomy within two of the most influential styles: shaolinquan (Shaolin Fist) from the Buddhist monastery in Henan is a hard form, which nevertheless utilizes the soft art of qigong (breath control); while wudangquan (you guessed it, Wudang Fist), a soft style from the Taoist retreats of Hubei, contains elements of external forms and is famous for its sword play. What is certain is that to attain the true skills of either an internal or external form, incredible physical and mental conditioning is required, whether achieved through painful exercises such as repeatedly striking wood and brick, or by intense meditation and breathing techniques.

Tai Chi

Taijiquan (Great Eternal Fist) takes its name from the taiji, the Taoist yinyang symbol, and is the world's most popular martial art (although its gentle, graceful style runs contrary to many people's perception of the term "martial art”). It is an internal form that uses slow, cyclical movements to promote energy flow, circulation and a sense of well being. Traditionally practiced by older Chinese, tai chi is becoming increasingly popular in the West. It is probably the easiest martial art to engage in, even on a short trip, as you can see it every morning in almost any park in China. You can simply watch, but you'll frequently find yourself being invited to participate! Even if you don't manage to master the moves, you'll have had a truly Chinese experience and had a little exercise at the same time.

Studying Martial Arts

Many foreigners come to China to study martial arts and the most famous center is Shaolin, although the commercialization and plethora of copycat schools at the "home of kung fu” can come as something of a disappointment. Wudang Shan makes for a more low-key, but equally historic alternative, but if you're serious about study, knowing which style you wish to learn will help you decide where to go. You can arrange private or group instruction, whether for a few hours or a few months, in many of the places covered in this book. Yangshuo makes for a particularly accessible and attractive place to study. Obviously, having an English-speaking teacher makes learning easier, but, as instruction tends to be quite demonstrative, this isn't as much of a problem as you might think. For more information about long-term study in China check www.educasian.com and www.shaolins.com.

Film

Chow Yun Fat is said to be one of the most recognizable movie stars in the world simply because of his importance to the billion-strong Chinese cinema audience and this gives some insight into the scale and scope of movies in modern China. Movie-making in China has a checkered history and one that reflects and often portrays the events of the time. From early on, China's political situation dictated that production was split into three geographical areas and mainland China, Hong Kong (see Kung Fu Flicks) and Taiwan have all developed along their own lines.

The Beginnings

Film in China saw a promising start in Shanghai, though during the early years Beijing Opera was the focus of almost all movies. In the 1920s American expertise was called upon and overseas influences continued to play a part in Chinese film production until the Japanese invasion. In the 1930s Shanghai studios such as the Mingxing and Lianhua produced a string of silent, often anti-Imperialist movies like Spring Silk Worm (1933) and The Goddess (1934), which saw the rise to fame of  China's first movie stars, notably the glamorous Ruan Lingyu. In 1942 Japanese occupation put an end to the Shanghai studios, which pushed production into the nationalist and Communist regions inland, as well as to Hong Kong. Once the Japanese had left in 1945 production started up again and Spring River Flows East (1947), which highlighted the suffering of the masses while the elites luxuriated in their wealth, became one of the most popular movies of this period.

Repression under Communism

Unfortunately, as soon as production re-started in earnest, movies became heavily censored during the early years of communism. The party began to harness the potential of film as a propaganda medium. Students were sent to be trained in movie-making in Moscow, and the Beijing Film Academy was opened in 1956. While America was enjoying a golden era of the big screen, most Chinese movies of the time were jingoistic stories promoting the glory of communism. Despite the storylines, it was this time that really saw the Chinese start going to the movies. But as time went on, the Communist government further tightened its reins and the Cultural Revolution (see History) saw Chinese moviemaking at an all-time low

The Fifth Generation

In the 1980s things finally opened up with the Fifth Generation of film-makers, so-called for the number of generations since the 1949 Revolution. Chen Kaige is seen as having started the ball rolling with his 1984 film Yellow Earth, which painted a beautiful but bleak picture of the futility of Communist ideology, quickly provoking controversy with the government. Zhang Yimou, who worked the camera on Yellow Earth, soon followed with his own movie, Red Sorghum, in 1986. The "revolutionary” sentiments of this movie went some way to appeasing officialdom and he went on to score more successes, including Judou (1990) and Raise the Red Lantern (1991), both of which star the exquisite Gong Li. Most recently, Zhang has made a foray into the kung fu scene with Hero (see Kung Fu Flicks, below) and The House of Flying Daggers (2004), and he has been busy on other projects. Gong Li also features in another of Chen Kaige's movies, Farewell My Concubine (1993), considered to be his finest work. The story is again indicative of the troubles of the time, told through the lives of two Beijing Opera performers, and its tragic ending wasn't well received by the authorities.

The Sixth Generation

The Tian'anmen Square crackdown sent ripples in all directions and film was not excluded. Many Fifth Generation movies had been critically acclaimed overseas and in the mid-1990s this group seemed to shift their focus to foreign audiences. Today the cutting edge of film in China rests with a new breed of gritty, urban underground directors, loosely labeled the Sixth Generation. Movies like Zhang Yuan's Beijing Bastards (1993), which stars China's undisputed king of rock, Cui Jian, and Wang Xiaoshuai's Beijing Bicycle (2001), have a nervy realness to them, and depict the city as they see it, warts and all. Obviously, this generation of directors has fared even worse than their predecessors with the government and sadly many of these telling tales cannot be seen in mainland movie theaters.

Hong Kong & Taiwan

Hong Kong has principally focused on martial arts movies, but has also produced outstanding directors such as Wong Kar-wai, who was actually born in Shanghai, and is responsible for the urban love classic Chungking Express (1994). Taiwan's movie industry first developed under the Japanese and then passed through a number of phases, from early escapism through to the growing pains of the island's rapid industrial development. Although the Taiwanese film industry has suffered from the increasing popularity of Hollywood movies, the island has produced the Chinese world's most famous director, Ang Lee, whose epic Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000) received worldwide acclaim. He has subsequently successfully shifted from Eastern to Western, with his Oscar-winning film, Brokeback Mountain (2005).

Kung Fu Flicks

While they are often disregarded by serious critics, martial arts movies have been important in the development of China's movie industry and are the only genre to have successfully bridged the gap between East and West. Although modern Hollywood action blockbusters differ greatly from Chinese movies of old, many of their fight scenes are fresh from a kung fu flick.

Early Years

The Chinese had been making martial arts movies for decades before they reached the West. Hong Kong can be called the home of kung fu flicks and is still the third-biggest movie-producing region in the world after Hollywood and Bollywood. Many early movies focused on the legendary 19th-century master, Wong Fei-Hung, renowned for his sense of fair play. At this time storylines tended to be fairly formulaic and the heroes often did what their audiences were afraid to do – standing up for themselves and what they believed, in the face of tyrannical authority or the criminal underworld.

Although these early films were popular within China, the first kung fu movies to make it onto the world stage were led by Bruce Lee.

Bruce Lee statue in Hong Kong

Bruce Lee

As the man who popularized kung fu in the West, Bruce Lee, is rightly its most famous son. Known in China as Lee Xiaolong (Little Dragon), he was born in the US in1940but soon moved to Hong Kong. Although he had already appeared on screen by the tender age of five, Bruce didn't start learning kung fu under the wing-chun master, Yip Man, until he was 13 years old. A year later he took up cha cha dancing and won a Hong Kong competition in 1958. Aged 19, he returned to the States and in 1961 enrolled to study philosophy at the University of Washington. During this time he began teaching kung fu to fellow students, opened the Jun Fan Kung Fu Institute and met his future wife, Linda Emery. He was talent-spotted to win the role of Kato in the 1966 TV series The Green Hornet, albeit playing second fiddle to Van Williams. However, in spite of a few other bit parts, Bruce was unable to make a mark on audiences who weren't ready for an Asian movie star. After returning to Hong Kong in 1971, Golden Harvest's Raymond Chow offered him the starring role in The Big Boss, shot in Thailand, which was an instant box-office hit. He went on to star in Fist of Fury (1972), Way of the Dragon (1972) and the one that really brought the world spotlight, Hollywood-produced, Enter the Dragon (1973), although this wasn't released until after his death. An incomplete film project, Game of Death, was pieced together posthumously and, while not as polished as other productions (and featuring a double for much of the movie), the yellow jumpsuit worn by Bruce became a trademark, paid tribute to by Uma Thurman's costume in Quentin Tarantino's Kill Bill (2003).

Bruce Lee's sudden, unexpected death from a cerebral edema in July 1973 came as a shock to the movie and martial arts world. While 25,000 people attended his funeral in Hong Kong, many fans have, until recently, been disappointed at the paucity of Bruce Lee memorials or sights in the city. This has been remedied of late with a statue unveiled on the Avenue of Stars (see Hong Kong).There continues to be speculation as to how he died and the equally early and tragic death of his son, Brandon Lee, while filming the 1993 movie The Crow, has only intensified this. What is certain is that during his short, explosive life Bruce Lee helped the arts of the East come to the West and his movies still bring enjoyment and inspiration to enthusiasts and moviemakers around the globe.

Comedy Kung Fu

After his early death, a string of copycat Bruce Lee's were peddled by Golden Harvest, but they failed to fill the void. Rather than try and imitate him a new group of stars chose to differentiate themselves by moving the genre into comedy. Of this group, Jackie Chan (aka Chen Long, meaning Dragon Chen) is the only one to have seriously broken onto the world scene. Like Bruce Lee, Jackie Chan initially had difficulty making it in Hollywood and it wasn't until he starred in Rumble in the Bronx (1995) that he found fame worldwide. Drawing inspiration from the likes of Buster Keaton and Harold Lloyd, Chen Long has combined his incredible kung fu ability with slapstick comedy to produce a string of mainstream hits, including Rush Hour (1998) and Shanghai Noon (2000). The development of kung fu comedy has continued with recent movies like Stephen Chow's Shaolin Soccer (2001) and Kung Fu Hustle (2004).

Hollywood Action, Hong Kong Kung Fu

Comedy aside, Hollywood has been strongly influenced by kung fu and martial arts are an almost obligatory part of modern action movies, often served with some direct Chinese input. John Woo's oblique camera angles and intense action scenes in movies like Face Off (1997) and Mission Impossible II (2000) have helped push him to the forefront of this international genre, while Yuen Woo-Ping is famous for his fight scene choreography, and made his name in the West with the Wachowski Brothers' Matrix trilogy (1999-2003), and more recently in Quentin Tarantino's Kill Bill two-parter (2003-4). Yuen Woo-Ping also played his part in Taiwanese Ang Lee's martial arts epic Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000), which won four Oscars, and is widely regarded as the film that put China on the world movie map. While the film was criticized within China for pandering to the needs of Western audiences, it has undoubtedly ignited mainstream interest in the beauty of China's scenery and culture.

Traditional Chinese Medicine

Long scorned in the West as a mystical load of Oriental mumbo jumbo, Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) and healing are now enjoying popularity around the globe – a fact recognized by the WHO's acceptance of TCM (for certain ailments). However, it is also recognized that Western medicine is more effective for certain severe conditions, especially those requiring surgery, and many Chinese today use a combination of the two.

Intrinsically linked to the concept of qi, an energy force that moves along meridians around the body, TCM is based on attempting to balance the ever-shifting opposites of the human system. There are perceived to be five basic elements to the body (blood, energy, essence, moisture and spirit) and any misalignment of these or within the organs of the body is thought to engender poor health. Diagnosis often seems simplistic (checking the pulse by hand and examining the tongue are the usual first steps), but is aimed at identifying the imbalances that have lead to the illness. Thus, treatment is based on measures to counteract these differences, and offers a more holistic approach to health than Western medicine, which generally just treats the symptoms. TCM treatment comes in two principal forms, acupuncture (and acupressure/massage/reflexology) and herbal remedies. Massage is the most commonly utilized form of treatment and you will find establishments in every town across the country. Tuina (meaning push and grasp) is the official term for medicinal massage, while anmo is a more general term that also includes massage for pleasure rather than health benefits. Some methods of TCM treatment involve the use of both pressure and herbal remedies – moxibustion or hot-cupping uses heated bamboo or glass cups infused with herbs to draw qi to the required part of the body, but note that it will leave you covered in large reddish circular marks for a few days afterwards!

A TCM stall

TCM in Practice

In most Chinese towns you'll find TCM doctors alongside Western practices and most hospitals have TCM wings, indeed some are completely devoted to traditional medicine. But if you don't want to traipse all the way to a hospital just for a massage you'll find TCM and reflexology establishments dotted around the cities (see the Health & Relaxation sections in the individual chapters for listings). Reflexology or massage usually costs between $30 and $60 an hour (or as much as $300 an hour in upmarket hotels or spas) and will make you lighter on your feet for days! If you have a serious aliment that you'd like to try and treat with TCM, it's best to go to an English speaking doctor, or take a translator along with you.

The Downside

In spite of its natural remedies and holistic approach, Chinese traditional medicine has one serious downside for animal-loving Westerners: its beliefs about the medicinal values and use of (sometimes endangered) species body parts – from rhino horn and tiger penis for boosting male virility, to bear bile for improving cardiac condition. Animals are often kept in harsh conditions to render these body parts or fluids, or huge sums are paid for them to be poached from other countries. While animal rights groups are doing their best to substitute equally efficacious alternatives for body parts and there are TCM clinics that don't use such products, demand is still high. Although there are occasional crackdowns, as long as these health benefits are seen to be true and people have the money to pay, the trade will continue. This said, it's easy to avoid such products and, if you have a niggling medical problem that won't go away, give TCM a chance. It might just work; if not, you'll have had a genuine Chinese experience and maybe a massage as well!

Travel & Living Information

Planning Your Trip

When to Go

The two main factors to consider in planning when to visit China are the climate and the number of other visitors you'll have to share key attractions with. In terms of the weather, spring, summer and fall are the best times for a visit. While summers are hot and often wet, spring and fall see less rainfall and generally offer the clearest skies. But, in a country as big as China, if you plan to travel to more than one region, you're bound to witness both rain and sunshine, no matter when you come. For more detailed climatic information see Climate.

The tourist season for foreign visitors starts around March or April (with the exception of Hong Kong and Macau, which are mild throughout the winter) and runs until October. If you want to avoid the crowds, you can visit in winter, but be prepared for some bitter temperatures, especially in the north. But, in a country with almost 1½ billion people, the greatest numbers of tourists are, as you might expect, Chinese, so it is their vacation times that you want to avoid (see below).

Holidays & Festivals

China's rich ethnic diversity has given it a whole host of festivals and holidays, some of which are unique to individual areas, while others are celebrated nationally. In the 1990s the government introduced so-called "Golden Weeks” to help develop the tourist industry and these week-long national holidays (Chinese New Year, Labor Day and National Day) see China's emerging middle classes all taking a break in the same time period. Transport services are booked beyond capacity, hotels are bursting at the seams and everyone inflates their prices. Traveling during these periods, you'll truly come to grips with the fact that China is the most populous nation on earth, and these weeks have become so troublesome that, in recent years, some Chinese families have elected to stay at home and relax, although you'd never guess that when you see the number of people visiting tourist sights.

In addition to the holidays and festivals listed below, there are also countless regional celebrations and (see individual chapters for details) and Western celebrations such as Christmas and New Year are becoming increasingly popular.

Chinese New Year (Spring Festival; Jan/Feb) – The start of the Lunar New Year is the most important of all Chinese festivals and falls between January 21st and February 20th. It will fall on February 7th in 2008 and January 26th in 2009. Each year one of the 12 zodiac animals is ushered in (see The Chinese Zodiac for more) and the whole nation (and Chinese world) celebrates the week-long holiday – it's a time when people return to their hometowns to be with their families. In preparation for the holiday, it's customary to give a thorough "spring-cleaning” to the house and buy new clothes for the coming year. On New Year's Eve the whole family sits down to enjoy a feast. Among a host of dishes, fish usually takes pride of place, symbolic of abundance and prosperity. Fruits, especially oranges are seen to represent regeneration, and these are often eaten after the meal. Red is an auspicious color in China and after the meal children are given red envelopes (hong bao) containing money. The money is usually given in amounts that feature the numbers one, six and eight, which are lucky. People also put red banners on their doors to welcome in the New Year and there are public celebrations, often involving lion dances, pounding drums and spirit-scaring firecrackers.

Lantern Festival (Feb/March) – This festival marks the end of the New Year's celebrations and is held on the first full moon of the year. Lanterns are made from paper and silk and are hung outside homes and along the streets, which makes for a magical atmosphere. Lanterns were traditionally red or yellow and of a conventional shape, but today in the cities you can see all manner of creations – from monkeys to spacecraft! During the festival glutinous rice dumplings stuffed with sweet fillings are a popular snack.

Tomb Sweeping Day (Qingming Festival; April) – Ancestor worship is still popular in China and the Qingming Festival is a day put aside for cleaning family graves. In the countryside, tombs are swept, cleaned and often decorated. However, in urban areas it is law to cremate the dead, so tomb sweeping is a less common practice, although ancestors are still commemorated. The festival usually falls on April 4th or 5th.

Labor Day (May 1st) – The start of another of China's three golden weeks.

Youth Day (May 4th) – Youth Day commemorates the 1919 student demonstrations in Tian'anmen Square, which led to the May Fourth Movement.

Children's Day (June 4th) – Kids go on field trips around the country, so beware if you're heading to a major sight!

Dragon Boat Festival (June/July) – This is one of the most spectacular of Chinese festivals, involving teams across the country racing boats adorned as dragons, spurred on by the steady sound of an onboard drummer. The festival commemorates the suicide of the poet Qu Yuan, and the boats are re-enacting the unsuccessful chase to try and save him. Bamboo-wrapped glutinous rice parcels (zongzi) are the food to eat during the festival. The festival takes place on the fifth day of the fifth lunar month and races can be seen on rivers around the country.

Ghost Month (Aug/Sept) – This is the time when ghosts return to earth and is regarded as an inauspicious time to travel, particularly on water. Unless you're afraid of ghosts this should make it a good time to visit China, but you'll find that plenty of Chinese don't seem too scared either!

Confucius' Birthday (Sept 28th) – The Old Sage's birth is celebrated with elaborate ceremonies at Confucian temples around the country.

Moon Festival (Mid-Autumn Festival; Sept/Oct) – This festival is held on the 15th day of the eighth lunar month, when the moon is at its brightest. Delicious but filling mooncakes are eaten and it's a popular time for a barbeque under the moonlight.

National Day – This week-long holiday celebrates the foundation of the People's Republic.

Organized Tours

If you have limited time, then an organized tour can help you get the most out of China, removing the hassles of booking tickets, finding accommodation and picking which of the country's manifold attractions to include in your trip. Tours can also help get you closer to the Chinese people. Tour leaders and guides should be able to facilitate communication and private transport will enable you to get to places that may otherwise difficult to reach. For potential routes see Suggested Itineraries.

However, the downside of tours is that you may feel shielded from the "real world” at times, they tend to be more expensive than independent travel and you might have to put up with group members, guides and even tour leaders you don't see eye to eye with. This said, as a tour leader for several years, my experience has been that most people feel they got the most out of their time and enjoyed being in a group. Meals in China, for example, are designed to be eaten in large groups and if you dine alone or as a couple your options are more limited. Possibly the best way to travel if you have money, but not time, is on a private tour where you and a few friends or family have your own guide and can tailor the itinerary to your preference.

When choosing a tour company, make sure you pick one that's suitable for you – don't let an agent make the decision for you; carefully read about the nature of the tour and what's included. The most disappointed guests I led were those who had expectations that were very different from those detailed in the brochure. All good agents have consumer protection insurance, meaning that, if the company defaults, you should get compensation; companies affiliated under USTOA (United States Tour Operators Association, www.ustoa.com) or IATO (International Association of Tour Operators, www.aito.co.uk – they also offer tours) are covered.

Recommended Tour Companies

The letters before the comma indicate which country the company is based in, although you can book a tour from any country and all companies will arrange tailor-made packages to fit your needs.

Luxury Tours

Abercrombie & Kent (US, www.abercrombiekent.com; UK, www.abercrombiekent.co.uk)

Absolute Asia (US, www.absoluteasia.com)

Audley Travel (UK, www.audleytravel.com)

Bales (www.balesworldwide.com)

Cox & Kings (US, www.coxandkingsusa.com; UK, www.coxandkings.co.uk)

CTS Horizons (UK, www.ctshorizons.com)

Hayes & Jarvis (UK, www.hayes-jarvis.com)

Imperial Tours (US, www.imperialtours.net)

Magic of the Orient (UK, www.magic-of-the-orient.com)

Virgin Holidays (UK, www.virgin.com/holidays)

Voyages Jules Verne (UK, www.vjv.co.uk)

Adventure Tours

Adventures Abroad (US, www.adventures-abroad.com)

The Adventure Company (UK, www.adventurecompany.co.uk)

Asian Pacific Adventures (US, www.asianpacificadventures.com)

Backroads (US, www.backroads.com)

Explore Worldwide (UK, www.exploreworldwide.com)

Freestyle Adventures (Taiwan, www.freestyleadventures.com)

G.A.P Adventures (US, www.gapadventures.com)

Grasshopper (www.grasshopperadventures.com)

Imaginative Traveller (UK, www.imaginative-traveller.com)

Intrepid (Australia, www.interpidtravel.com)

Sundowners (Australia, www.sundownerstravel.com)

Travel Indochina (Australia, www.travelindochina.com.au)

World Expeditions (UK, www.worldexpeditions.co.uk)

Agents in China

Choice Travel (www.choicetravel.cn)

CITS (www.cits.net)

China Odyssey (www.chinaodysseytours.com)

Specialized Tours

Many of the companies listed above also operate specialized interest tours; Grasshopper runs great bike tours through Bike Asia (www.bikeasia.com) as well as photographic tours. Both Backroads and World Expeditions run hiking and cycling tours and Intrepid operates culinary tours. Imaginative Traveller offers tours suitable for families and The Adventure Company has trips suitable for infants over a year old. Other specialized companies include:

ACIS (US, www.acis.com) – educational trips for students.

Beijing Xinhua International Tours (China, www.tour-beijing.com/disability_travel/) – Beijing and China tours for disabled travelers.

Birdfinders (UK, www.birdfinders.co.uk) – operates a few birdwatching trips a year.

Birding Worldwide (Australia, www.birdingworldwide.com.au) – searches out rare bird species.

i-to-i (www.i-to-i.com) – two- to 12-week trips and volunteer placements, principally around Xi'an.

Kumuka Worldwide (UK, www.kumuka.com) – overland truck journeys.

Naturetrek (UK, www.naturetrek.co.uk) – wildlife-focused trips throughout China.

Oasis (UK, www.oasisoverland.co.uk) – overland truck journeys.

Saga (UK, www.saga.co.uk) – tours for over-50s.

Visas

Every foreign visitor to China needs a visa to enter the country and these must be obtained in advance (with the exception of arrivals to Hong Kong, Macau and Hainan Island), not at the point of entry as is the case with some other Asian countries. Visas can be obtained by either applying in person at the nearest Chinese embassy, through an agency or by mail (although this is no longer possible in the UK). Complete visa applications will need to include all required fees, a passport photo, a passport with at least one blank page, six months validity and possibly proof of onward travel. For all visa types you must enter within three months of the issue date. Standard tourist visas (L-type) are the most common and are usually granted for 30 days to a maximum of six months. If you're coming here to work, you can apply for an F or Z visa and you'll need a letter of invitation from the company you'll be working with in China. To study in China you can apply for an X visa and will need a letter from the college where you'll be studying. Note that citizens of most Western countries do not need a visa to visit Hong Kong or Macau for periods of under a month. In Hong Kong you can easily arrange a China visa from a local travel agent or the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs – see Hong Kong for more.Wherever you get your visa, it will cost between US$30 for a single entry to over US$150 for a two- to five-year multiple-entry visa – check websites for the latest prices.

Chinese EmbassiesOverseas

Australia: 39 Dunblane Street, Camperdown, Sydney, NSW (tel.02-8595-8000, www.au.china-embassy.org/eng/). Consulates, Melbourne, Perth and Brisbane.

Canada: 515 Patrick Street, Ottawa, Ontario K1N 5H3 (tel.613-7893-434, www.chineseembassycanada.org). Consulates, Calgary, Toronto and Vancouver.

Ireland: 40 Ailesbury Road, Dublin 4 (tel.053-1269-1707, www.chinaembassy.ie)

New Zealand: 2-6 Glenmore Street, Wellington (tel.04-4721-382, www.chinaembassy.org.nz). Consulate in Auckland (tel.09-5251-589, www.chinaconsulate.org.nz).

Thailand: 57 Rachadapisake Road, Huay Kwang, Bangkok 10310 (tel.02-2247-7554, www.chinaembassy.or.th/eng/). Consulate in Chiang Mai.

UK: 49-51 Portland Place, London W1B 1QD (tel.0207-7631-1430, www.chinese-embassy.org.uk; visa applications Mon-Fri 9 am-noon). Consulates, Manchester and Edinburgh.

USA: 2300 Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington DC 20008 (tel.202-3282-500, www.china-embassy.org/en). Consulates, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, New York and San Francisco.

Vietnam: 46 Hoang Dieu Road, Hanoi (tel.0845-3736, www.vn.china-embassy.org)

Extending your Visa

If you need to extend your visa while in China, this can be done by visiting the local Public Security Bureau (PSB – see Emergency Services and the Public Security Bureau). Visa extension applications will need to be supported by justification, more passport photos and payment. Costs, duration of processing and length of extension all vary from city to city – visa extensions are by no means a right and are sometimes refused; some travelers search out small town PSBs as they are thought to be more generous with extra time granted. If the PSB won't extend your visa, the only options left are to try in another town, or head to Hong Kong to apply for a new visa, which can be issued within a day or two (outside of weekends). PSBs are generally open Mondays to Fridays from 9-11:30 am and 2-4:30 pm. If you do overstay your visa for any reason you will usually be fined $500 for each extra day you have spent in the country, although long overstays can incur harsher penalties.

Insurance

As a rule travelers should certainly have medical insurance and, ideally, possessions insurance for any trip. China is no exception and while no-one will ask to see your documentation unless you are seriously sick or injured, the peace of mind afforded is worthwhile, regardless of any actual reimbursement. Before booking any insurance, check the coverage your existing homeowners or medical policy offers. You can often buy medical insurance only, but in order to get possessions coverage you'll usually have to purchase medical. Make sure your policy includes all activities that you'll be involved in during your trip – if you are going to be climbing, jet skiing, whitewater rafting or even just hiking, check that it's covered. If you're on a guided tour, the travel company may have their own insurance which should be sufficient for all activities undertaken on that trip, although you may not be insured if the company goes bankrupt – ask before buying.

While possessions insurance can be seen as less of a necessity, it is still recommended. As people take ever more technical tiny gadgets away with them, and move from place to place in unfamiliar, exciting new surroundings, there is always the risk of leaving something behind and that is before you consider the fact that petty crime is on the rise in China.

Insurance policies come in many different forms and can cover just a few days or a whole year. If you're going to be traveling a lot in a year, it's worth considering a yearly package, which normally covers you for as many journeys as you'd like, as long as no single trip is over 31 days. When you're buying your insurance, check the comparative amounts on offer in case of serious emergency (hospitalization, repatriation, etc.), along with catches such as "single item limits” on your possessions (if your camera's worth US$1,000 and the limit is US$500 per piece, it's no good for you, even if it is cheap!) Once you have your insurance policy, photocopy it, leave one copy with relatives at home and put another somewhere separate from the original in your baggage.

Below are some recommended insurance agents – the letters before the commas indicate where the company is based.

Access America (US, www.accessamerica.com)

Association of British Insurers (UK, www.abi.org.uk)

Columbus (UK, www.columbusdirect.com)

Insurance Council of Australia (Australia, www.ica.com.au)

Insurance Council of New Zealand (NZ, www.icnz.org.nz)

Insureandgo (UK, www.insureandgo.com)

Royal Bank of Canada Insurance (Canada, www.rbcinsurance.com)

Wexas (UK, www.wexas.com)

World Nomads (worldwide, www.worldnomads.com)

Making a Claim

If you have to make a claim, you'll need receipts for everything you're claiming for, be it medical expenses, or an electronic item. To claim for stolen items you'll also need a police report issued within 24 hours of the theft; make sure the PSB (see Emergency Services and the Public Security Bureau) understand you need the report for insurance purposes. Otherwise, you could be in for a long wild goose chase. If possible, take someone who can speak Chinese and English along with you (or see Language, Emergencies in the Chinese language section at the end of this guide for helpful terms).

What to Pack

While there are some important things you should remember to pack, in general, the less you take the better, particularly if you'll be using lots of public transport. Obviously, what you pack depends to an extent on where you're going, when and in what style. I find a rucksack perfect for adventure travel, but if you'll be staying in upscale hotels, taking taxis and planes and using porters at train stations, a suitcase may be more appropriate. In terms of clothing, you should obviously pack according to the season, although a hat and waterproof jacket can be useful any time of year. Remember that dark colors will hide the grime better and taking a number of layers will give you more flexibility in your attire, while still allowing you to keep warm if needed.

Aside from TIMP (tickets, insurance, money, passport), which you've got to have, you can find most things you need more cheaply in China than at home, although the following may come in handy:

Alarm clock

Adaptor

Business cards

Camera

Comfortable hardwearing shoes or sneakers

Deodorant (difficult to find in China)

Earplugs

First aid kit and basic medicines (see Health, Before you Leave)

Flashlight

Hat

Insect repellent

Lipbalm

Mandarin phrasebook or dictionary

Photocopies of your important documents

Pictures of home (to show people you meet)

Plastic ziplock and garbage bags

Pocket knife

Reading material

Rubber sandals

Sewing kit

Small padlock

Sunglasses

Sunscreen

Travel bathplug

Waterproof jacket

Information Sources

As China becomes an increasingly popular destination (for both travel and work), there are more sources of information found on the country, both at home and in China. While the concept of tourist information is still finding its feet on the mainland, Hong Kong (www.discoverhongkong.com) and Macau (www.macautourism.gov.mo) have excellent tourist offices. As the most important cities in the country, Beijing and Shanghai also have good information resources, some of which are government-run, while others are private and include a host of ex-pat magazines and webzines.That's Magazines have printed magazines and websites with useful listings and well-researched reviews of bars, clubs, restaurants and cultural events. The main website is www.thatsmags.com, where there are links to its Beijing, Shanghai and Pearl River Delta pages, or you can pick up copies of the magazine in bars and hotels. The Ismay Network produces equally useful magazines to many of the cities in this book – Beijing Talk, Shanghai Talk, South China City Talk (Guangzhou, Shenzhen and Zhuhai) and Macau Talk. Talk and that's Magazines are available in bars, restaurants and hotels in the relevant cities. In addition to those listed here, there are other websites that are helpful for specific cities – see the Information Sources sections in individual chapters for listings.

China Excursions (www.chinaexcursions.com) – brief histories and descriptions of destinations around the country.

China Travel News (www.chinatravelnews.com) – the latest on everything to do with travel in China.

Travel China (www.travelchinaguide.com) – information on travel and a host of Chinese destinations.

Travel Advisories

The following governmental websites offer the latest information on the potential hazards of travel to countries around the world, including China.

Australian Department of Foreign Affairs (www.dfat.gov.au)

British Foreign and Commonwealth Office (www.fco.gov.uk)

Canadian Department of Foreign Affairs (www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca)

Irish Department of Foreign Affairs (www.irlgov.ie/iveagh)

New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs (www.safetravel.govt.nz)

US State Department (www.travel.state.gov)

Maps

Having a good map of the country always helps in envisioning your trip and the type of landscapes it will encompass. A good map of the whole of China is GeoCenter World Map but, other than providing an interesting overview, maps that cover such a large area are of little use, although some include city plans for major cities. Throughout this guide there are maps to help point you in the right direction (see the map list in the table of contents for details). However, for more detail, it's worth buying a local city map once in China. Up-to-date city maps are available from vendors who operate outside train and bus stations; these usually cost around $5 and may include some English. Another place to find city maps (usually for free) is in upscale hotels – if you're staying, there will probably be one in your room; otherwise just ask at reception.

Customs & Immigration

However you arrive, you'll have to go through immigration and customs, which can be a lengthy process and you'll need to fill in an arrival card and a quarantine form. Note that if you have any particularly valuable items (or over US$5000 cash) you are supposed to declare them upon entry. You're not allowed to bring more than $6000 in Chinese money, 400 cigarettes or two liters of alcohol. Firearms, recreational drugs and animals are all prohibited items and, theoretically, you can't bring in media material critical of China, though this is seldom enforced. Note that if you buy any antiques over 100 years old during your trip, you must obtain an export form (available from Friendship Stores) before departing. It is illegal to take anything home that dates from before Qianlong's death in 1795.

There are also restrictions on what (and how much) you're allowed to bring back to your home country, which generally allow at least for a bottle of spirits, 200 or more cigarettes, some cologne or perfume and up to a certain value of souvenirs – check the following websites for the latest:

US – www.cbp.gov

Canada – www.ccra.gc.ca

UK – www.hmce.gov.uk

Australia – www.customs.gov.au

New Zealand – www.customs.govt.nz

Getting Here & Away

China is accessible through the major international transport hubs of Beijing, Shanghai and Hong Kong. Airplane is the usual mode of entry, but arrival by boat or overland is also possible.

By Air

Beijing, Hong Kong and Shanghai are China's best-served international airports, receiving direct worldwide flights. But Guangzhou is seeing increasing international traffic and can offer some of the cheapest flights. While many of China's other city airports can take international traffic, they are predominantly served by flights from within the country and Asia. In recent years a number of budget Asian carriers like Air Asia (www.airasia.com) and Tiger Airways (www.tigerairways.com) have emerged, flying to airports such as Macau, Guangzhou and Shenzhen, which have substantially reduced prices from destinations such as Bangkok and Singapore.

Peak travel times (and therefore the highest flight prices) include the run up to Chinese New Year, midsummer and, in Hong Kong, the few weeks before Christmas. There are airlines listed under the relevant regions below, but if you want to look for the cheapest details the following online booking agents are worth checking out:

www.bootsnall.com (US)

www.cheaptickets.com (Worldwide)

www.ebookers.com (UK & Europe)

www.expedia.com (Worldwide)

www.flightcentre.com (Worldwide)

www.flychina.com (Worldwide)

www.gonomad.com (Worldwide)

www.hotwire.com (US)

www.lastminute.com (UK)

The following airlines fly from the US, Canada, the UK, Europe, Australia and New Zealand to China and Hong Kong:

Air China (www.airchina.com)

Cathay Pacific (www.cathaypacific.com)

China Airlines (www.china-airlines.com)

EVA Air (www.evaair.com)

From the USA & Canada

Direct flights from the West Coast to China take about 13 hours and will cost between US$700 and US$1,500 round-trip, depending on the season and routing. From the East Coast, you'll need to add a few hours and a couple of hundred dollars.

The airlines listed below all operate direct flights from the US and Canada.

Air Canada (www.aircanada.com)

American Airlines (www.americanair.com)

China Southern Airlines (www.cs-air.com/en)

JAL (Japan Airlines, www.jal.co.jp/en)

Korean Air (www.koreanair.com)

Northwest Airlines (www.nwa.com)

United Airlines (www.ual.com)

From the UK & Europe

Many of Europe's capital cities are linked by direct flights to China, which take between 10 and 12 hours and cost £350/i518 to £1,000/i1,480 round-trip, although a new Hong Kong-based long-haul budget carrier, Oasis Air (see below) has slashed these prices to as little as  £160 for a single fare (or £470 for business class) from London. Airlines that fly from Europe to China include:

Aeroflot (www.aeroflot.ru/en)

Air France (www.airfrance.com)

British Airways (www.ba.com)

Gulf Air (www.gulfairco.com)

KLM (www.klm.com)

Lufthansa (www.lufthansa.com)

Oasis Air (www.oasishongkong.com)

Virgin Atlantic (www.fly.virgin.com)

From Australia & New Zealand

Direct flights from Australia take between nine and 12 hours to reach China and should cost around AUS$1,500 to $2,000. New Zealand is less well-served but there are still direct flights, although you may want to travel to Australia and then on from there.

Air New Zealand (www.airnz.com)

Jetstar (www.jetstar.com)

Qantas (www.qantas.com)

Overland

The most popular overland routes into China are from the north through Mongolia, from the south through Vietnam and Laos, and from the west through Nepal into Tibet, but it's also possible to get into Xinjiang from Pakistan and the Central Asian Republics along the old Silk Route. Note that for most of these countries you'll need to obtain a visa in advance.

You can book train tickets for the Trans-Mongolian and Trans-Siberian Expresses in Beijing but to be sure of a berth it's worth booking in advance. Monkey Business (www.monkeyshrine.com) and Sundowners (www.sundownerstravel.com) can both arrange train tickets and connections online and can also help you obtain a Mongolian or Russian visa.

Heading to or from Laos or Vietnam there are several border crossings through Guangxi and Yunnan provinces that are open to foreigners. There are trains to Hanoi from Beijing, Guilin and Nanning or you can take a bus to Jinghong and then on to Mengla to cross into Laos.

By Water

Not many people arrive in China by ship, but it is still a possibility and Shanghai is served by ferries from Japan while cruise liners call in at Hong Kong. Cruises last from a couple of weeks to months, but they generally only spend a few days docked at Hong Kong and cost in the thousands of dollars. Cruise companies that run to Hong Kong include:

Clipper (www.clippercruise.com)

Cunard (www.cunard.com)

P&O (www.pocruises.com)

Princess (www.princess.com)

Seabourn (www.seabourn.com)

Star (www.starcruises.com)

Getting Around

China is a vast country with an ever-improving transport network, especially between principal cities, but it is also still a developing country and, while some services are ultra-modern, others are super-slow. Some regions are ruled by the road, while others are served better by rail. Travel by any mode of transport tends to be good value, especially when the distances covered are considered, although bus is usually the cheapest and flying the most expensive. The duration and scope of your itinerary and the amount of money you have to spend are deciding factors in how you travel. To get to smaller or more out of the way places you may have to take a bus (often from a railhead town), although for anything longer than a few hours, if it's an option, the train is preferable, unless you have the money to fly. Even if money is no object, I'd recommend at least one long distance train journey for the experience. Indeed, implicit in the term "traveling” is the journey itself and, for some, getting from A to B is the best part of the adventure. China has an abundance of local transport options which, while often uncomfortable, give you real insight into the lives of the people. Wherever you're planning to travel, unless you speak Mandarin, be sure to take along your destination written in Chinese (see the Chinese language section at the end of this guide). While pronouncing the name may seem like a simple process, the tones of the language and the plethora of similar-sounding place names can cause confusion.

Below are some sample fares (quoted in US dollars) in order to give a rough idea of the costs of different modes of transport.

By Air

China has an extensive flight network incorporating hundreds of frequently served airports. There are several regional airlines (China Southern, China Southwestern, etc.), many of which are subdivisions of Air China, the national carrier. Most towns of any significance have a branch of the regional airline that can issue tickets and many hotels have travel agents who can book them for a small commission. In larger cities you'll find CAAC offices where you can buy tickets for most airlines and often get buses to the airport. Airports can be close to the city center or tens of miles away so check when you purchase your tickets. While Chinese air travel doesn't have a particularly good safety track record, things have definitely improved, both in terms of pilot ability and aircraft quality. That said, flying in China is a very different experience, from the frequent turbulence to the "lucky seat lottery,” although delays seem to be a worldwide feature!

Airline Details

Air China (www.airchina.com)

China Eastern Airlines (www.ce-air.com)

China Southern Airlines (www.cs-air.com/en)

China Southwestern Airlines (www.cswa.com)

Dragon Air (www.dragonair.com)

Shanghai Airlines (www.shanghai-air.com/English/ehome)

By Rail

Rail is generally my favorite mode of travel in any country and China is no exception. More comfortable than by road and cheaper than air, train travel affords you some time to reflect on your travels as the countryside unfolds through the window to the gentle (and sometimes abrupt) clackety clack of the tracks below. It also offers the opportunity to meet locals (albeit, on occasion, too closely for comfort). And it can give you a look at the conflicts of modern China; the system is authoritarian in essence, with its smartly dressed, stern staff and regulated systems, but these days you can hire VCD players (some trains even have individual TVs in first-class sleeper compartments) and buy tacky toys along the way. Stations usually have shops and stalls selling all the goods you'll need for a long journey and there are dining carriages on many sleeper services along with platform snacks along the way. You'll also find checkrooms for luggage at stations and some stations have designated waiting rooms for first-class passengers (see Classes, below). China has an extensive railway network that covers all the major cities, now including Lhasa, which is the end destination of the high-altitude, ultra-modern Tibet line, part of the government's program to develop the west.

Categories of Train

Trains are categorized according to their speed. The new D trains are the fastest, with Z trains hot on their heels, followed by T and then K trains, which are still fairly speedy. Un-lettered trains are the slowest of the bunch and are worth avoiding if you have a long distance to cover, as they also tend to be older and thus less comfortable and clean. The faster the train, the more expensive the tickets will be.

Classes

Trains are divided into four classes and any train may have all or only one of these classes, depending on its route and speed. All classes have restrooms (though these are often squat and can get pretty filthy), a supply of hot water for tea, and generally some kind of food and drink provision, usually in the form of a buffet car and food trolleys.

The bottom of the scale is "hard seat” which is, on the oldest trains, literally that, just a hard wooden seat, though most of these have been replaced by (still fairly rigid) cushioned seats. This is where you'll get to mingle with the masses but, when you consider the price, it's really not that bad, although it can be taxing for longer journeys. Soft seat is the next level up and the seats and clientele reflect the jump in price. Soft-seat carriages are sometimes double-decker. Hard sleeper is the most commonly used class for longer trips and accordingly gets booked up the quickest. Although the name doesn't quite conjure up images of luxury, it's actually fairly comfortable. Here you'll have one of six bunks fitted into booths along one side of the train. Although the bottom level is the most expensive, followed by the middle level and then the top, there is debate among travelers as to which is best. The bottom obviously offers the easiest access and is the roomiest, but you'll have people sitting on your bed during the day. You get a little less room in the middle but more privacy, and on the top you feel away from it all, although you have very little space to savor this. Soft sleeper is the top of the line, where you'll reside in a private four-bunk compartment. As with hotels, the comfort of the train also depends on its age, thus hard sleeper on a new train can be almost as good as soft sleeper on an old one The most modern trains on major routes (Beijing to Shanghai, for example) have a new "business” class where you get a two-room compartment complete with restroom and TV!  In the sleeper classes you're provided with clean bedding and a flask of hot water per compartment. On entering the train you'll need to exchange your ticket for a metal or plastic tag, which enables the attendant to make sure you get off at the right station. Indeed, you'll often be awakened a good hour before the train is due so they can turn your bed around for the next passenger. Although the incidence of crime isn't high, it's worth securing your luggage to a rail with a padlock and keeping an eye on your possessions

Buying a Ticket

Buying a ticket from the train station can be a confusing and time-consuming business, so many travelers elect to purchase them through an agent (often found in your hotel), for a small surcharge. For frequently served shorter routes it's easy enough to just arrive at the station and get a ticket for the next train. However, for longer journeys, especially during peak times or on popular routes, trains can be completely booked for days, so if you know your schedule it's worth buying your ticket on arrival in the city. If you do buy your ticket at the station, make sure you take along the written Chinese name for your destination (see language boxes in individual chapters), ask which line to stand in, then get ready for some pushing, culminating in the frantic decision-making process as the masses behind try to oust you from your number one spot! Some stations have designated foreigners' ticket windows, which are worth seeking out as the staff might speak English and the lines are often shorter. See the Language section at the end of this guide for the train classes in Chinese.

By Road

China's road network has undergone massive investment in the last decade and some journey times have been dramatically reduced as a result. The efficiency of the government is undeniable in making progress here. While environmental action committees and protests are often the norm when a new road is proposed in Europe, in China it's a simple case of get out of the way or face the consequences. This may show little concern for human rights, but it is certainly an efficient way of getting the job done and roads are finished in a fraction of the time it would take elsewhere in the world (safety considerations aside). New toll highways have been built between major cities and roads have often superseded former modes of transport (especially the rivers) as the way to get around. However, China remains an enormous country and, although some areas (the Pearl River Delta and the Yangzi Basin) have been dissected by new expressways in recent times, much of rural China is still connected by unbelievably bumpy dirt tracks, which get washed away every rainy season. Journeys on these routes can be crowded, uncomfortable, frustrating and scary. But, if you're not in a hurry, they are another great way to see the country and come face-to-face with the locals, baskets of chickens and all.

Buses

While seldom as comfortable as the train, buses are generally cheaper, more frequent and often quicker for shorter routes. In remote or mountainous areas buses may be the only transport option. Intercity buses are generally categorized as putong (ordinary) class or kuai (express). The latter use expressways where available and are thus faster, tend to be more comfortable and are around double the price.There are also sleeper buses that link cities across the country, sometimes taking upwards of 30 hours. Typically, these are rickety old affairs with flat bunk beds, but a new breed of upmarket express sleeper buses has recently come into being, with DVD players, fully reclinable chairs and restrooms. On shorter routes you might also find shuttle minibuses, which cost a little more than standard buses and are a little quicker once on the road, but you'll have to wait for them to fill up before leaving. With local services your luggage may go on the roof or have to be squeezed in with you, but on more modern vehicles it will probably be stowed beneath and you'll receive a tag to reclaim it. It's worth taking some food on long-distance services as break stops can be erratic, but on rural routes there may be a wealth of local snacks to choose from as passengers get on and off at small market towns. There are usually shops selling snacks at bus stations and there may also be luggage storage facilities.

Buying a Ticket

In smaller towns and cities there may only be one bus station but in larger urban areas there can often be several, which serve different regions, as well as express stations in the center. For short hops you can generally just show up and get on the next bus, but for longer journeys it's worth buying your ticket in advance or arriving in the morning as buses are less frequent in the afternoons, and often finish at sundown during winter, unless there are sleeper services. Once you're at the station you may be faced with a daunting number of ticket windows but staff are generally helpful.

Car Rental

Forbidden until recently, car rental options are still limited in China unless you're a resident with a Z visa (and a valid license from your home country), in which case you can obtain the Chinese license necessary to drive here. Otherwise, your options are restricted to hiring a car with driver, which can be arranged through major international chains such as Avis (www.avischina.com) and Hertz (www.hertz.com.cn) or local companies – rates start from around US$40 a day.

Hong Kong and Macau are exceptions to the rule and you can easily rent a self-drive car in either – exploring Macau's coastal roads in the Cub and Moke jeeps they offer is great fun. If you live on the mainland and choose to drive, it soon becomes apparent that the rules of the road revolve around size – the bigger the vehicle the more you need to avoid it. Outside of the cities you need to pay particular attention at night as many drivers seem oblivious to the fact their cars have lights!

By Boat

Rivers and canals used to be one of the primary transport means for both people and freight in China, but these days they have been replaced by road, rail and air. Conversely, for visitors, river travel still offers one of the best ways to see idyllic rural China, with some of the country's most spectacular scenery as a backdrop. Of particular note are the Three Gorges, Guangxi's Li River and the Grand Canal. While you can organize most cruises while you're in China, if you want to guarantee a quality boat to cruise the Three Gorges it's worth booking from home – see the websites listed under Booking from Overseas. There are also ferries between Hong Kong and Macau and to Pearl River Delta destinations.

City Travel

Subway

These days many of China's major cities, including Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Guangzhou, Shanghai and Beijing, have subway systems which are sometimes known as MTRs (Mass Transit Railways) and these offer a convenient, easy and inexpensive way to get around these cities. You usually buy tickets ($2-10) from machines, which have English instructions, and stations are marked (and sometimes announced) in English. Closest subway stations are given where appropriate throughout the book.

Bus

Every Chinese city has a cheap and extensive bus network and this often forms the backbone of the urban transport system. However, the fact that destinations are generally only marked in Chinese, and that buses can be very crowded and often aren't air-conditioned makes the subway preferable where it's an option. You normally pay ($1-2) onboard and often need to have exact change. Show the driver your destination written in Chinese and, if you're lucky, he or she will give you the nod when it's time to get off. Bus numbers are given where appropriate throughout the book.

Taxi

Taxis are the easiest way to get around China's cities. Although drivers seldom speak English, as long as you have your destination written in Chinese (see the language boxes) you won't go too far wrong. Flagfall rates vary from $4 to $12.5 for the first two km (1.2 miles) and then rise in increments beyond this. Make sure that the driver uses the meter ("da biao”). In some cities you'll also find motorcycle taxis, which are a speedy way to get through the clogged city streets but it can be difficult to get a fair price – see individual chapter listings for details.

Cycle Rickshaw

China still has cycle rickshaws and pedicabs, although in some of its cities these are exclusively the preserve of tourists and you need to bargain hard before you set out on your journey. If you're in a hurry they are hardly ideal, but to soak up the pace of the city they can make a fun change. See individual cities for approximate rates.

Bicycle

Although being rapidly superseded by scooters and cars, the bicycle is the traditional mode of transport in China. In spite of modernization, China has over half a billion cycles – by far the highest ownership in the world. Although cycling around the big cities can initially seem a little daunting, there are often designated cycle lanes and, as long as you move with the masses, you'll be fine. Bikes can be rented in most cities and offer an excellent way to get around, particularly in Hangzhou, Suzhou and the countryside. Rates vary from as little as $5 for a day, to $50 an hour from some upmarket hotels.

Ferry

The cities are also often best seen from the water – Hong Kong, Shanghai, Hangzhou and Suzhou are testaments to this. Although seldom very practical (with the exception of Hong Kong's Star Ferry), ferries present a different side of the city and, if you're short of funds, they can offer a cheap alternative to a river or harbor cruise.

Practicalities

Money Matters

The Currency

The currency of China is the yuan ($), also known as the kwai or renminbi (RMB), which literally translates as "people's money.” At the time of writing there were $8to the US dollar, $10 to the Euro and $16 to the British Pound Sterling. Paper money was introduced to the world by China in 806 AD and today bank notes come in various amounts, many of which show a portrait of the omnipresent Chairman Mao on the front and famous landscapes from around the country on the back. Denominations are $100 (red), $50 (green), $20 (brown), $10 (blue), $5 (purple or brown), $2 (green) and $1 (green or brown), along with the almost worthless 5, 2 and 1 mao notes (10 mao, also referred to as jiao = $1). The $2 and 2 mao notes are both green and look very similar – remember the lower value one is the smaller of the two. Counterfeiting is rife in China and even the smallest local store may have a UV scanner. While $10 notes are often copied, the one to watch out for is the $100 (see Warning – Scams). The quality of fakes is often high, but generally you can tell by the feel of the money, which is often a little too crunchy to the touch. In Hong Kong the currency is the Hong Kong dollar (HK$) and at the time of writing there were HK$8 to the US$, HK$10 to the Euro and HK$15 to the British Pound Sterling. In Macau the pataca, or Macau dollar (MOP$) is roughly equivalent to the HK$, which can be used throughout the territory.

Banks & Foreign Exchange

The Bank of China (not the Agricultural Bank of China, Construction Bank of China, Industrial Bank of China or any of the other similarly named institutions) is the only bank licensed to exchange foreign currency or travelers' checks. Their opening hours may vary but are generally Monday to Friday from 9 am-noon and 2-5 pm. Upscale hotels can also change money, although their rates tend to be a little worse.

In order to change money you'll need your passport and, often, a sense of patience, as each one of your crisp greenbacks or checks is meticulously inspected. Dollars are by far the most readily accepted exchange currency, followed by Euros and then Pounds Sterling. When China first opened its doors to tourism in the 1980s, foreigners had to use FECs (Foreign Exchange Certificates), which led to the development of blackmarket money changing. Now that tourists use yuan like everybody else, blackmarket money changers are rare – if you are approached with rates that sound too good to be true, steer clear as there will probably be a few fake bills among your wad. Note that you can't change Chinese yuan into other currencies outside of China so budget accordingly and spend all of your cash!

Unlike Mainland China, Hong Kong is overflowing with exchange booths and it's quick and easy to change money. Some of the best rates are generally found on the ground floor of Chungking Mansions on Nathan Road in Kowloon.

Travelers' Checks

Traveler's checks are a safer option many people choose, although you'll pay a small surcharge for each check cashed. Ideally they should be purchased from one of the better-known issuers such as American Express, as lesser known versions may not be accepted in smaller towns. Be sure to note down the serial numbers and keep them and the purchase agreement separate from your checks. Also don't countersign them until you're sure the bank teller is watching.

ATMs & Credit Cards

China has an expanding number of ATMs, which will usually accept Amex, VISA, MasterCard, Maestro and Cirrus, though you'll pay a small flat fee for each withdrawal and, outside of large cities, ATMs may be hard to come by. Also, while plastic seems a safe and easy way to carry your cash, bear in mind that ATMs can be temperamental (or empty), so they should be used as a back-up rather than your principal source of funds. In Hong Kong, ATMs are found on seemingly every corner, although the same precautions apply. For larger purchases, credit cards are often a good way to go. China is increasingly geared up to finding ways for visitors to part with their money and many larger shops, chains or "factory” outlets will accept credit cards, albeit with a surcharge of around 3%.

Money Transfer

If you're really stuck for cash, Western Union (www.westernunion.com) has offices around the country, often found in post offices. The sender has to pay a surcharge and you need to take along your passport to receive funds. Western Union outlets are listed where available.

Costs

While not as cheap as some parts of Asia, China still makes for an inexpensive destination in terms of day-to-day living costs. The four main costs of traveling (apart from the price of airfare to and from your home country) are accommodation, eating, transport, and attraction entry fees. At the most basic, it's possible to live and travel on less than US$20 a day. However, this involves hunting out the cheapest lodgings, eating mainly street food, traveling by local bus or hard seat train (see Getting Around By Rail) and passing up shopping and more expensive tourist sites. A more realistic figure for most travelers would be in the region of US$50-150 a day, which incorporates mid-range hotels, eating in good restaurants, the occasional flight and entry to all the tourist sites you'd want to visit, along with a bit of shopping. If you want a more luxurious five-star tour, plan on a minimum of US$200 a day.

Tipping

Tipping is not an established practice in China and is only expected in places accustomed to dealing with tourists. Thus tourist guides or drivers are to be tipped, as are bellboys and waiters in better hotels. If you are on a group trip, tips are often arranged by the tour leader. Beyond this, any attempts to tip are generally politely refused, no matter how deserving you may feel a person is.

Keeping in Touch

Mail

China Post is the national mail carrier and its green and yellow (or green and white) signed branches are found in every town. Here you can send and receivemail and parcels, buy telephone cards and sometimes make international calls. To receive mail, have it addressed to yourself at Post Restante, China Post, City, Province, China – you'll need your passport as ID to collect it. Standard mail to North America or Europe usually takes at least a week, although EMS (express mail service) is quicker and registers your mail. To send a postcard overseas costs $3.2, a letter costs $4.4, and parcels are around $85/US$10 per kilo (2.2lb) for surface mail or $160/US$20 per kilo for airmail. If you want to send a parcel home, you need to leave it unsealed so the items can be checked – there are packing services at post offices. China Post offices are generally open from 8 am to 6 pm, although in smaller settlements opening hours may be shorter, while larger cities sometimes have 24-hour brancheswhere you might also find Western Union money transfer offices (see Money Transfer). The staff will generally be able to decipher the destination, but to be sure you could get the country written in Chinese by your hotel (for a list of countries, see Language, at the end of this guide). If you can't get to a China Post, there are also a few green and yellow mail boxes dotted around some of the bigger cities. In upscale hotels you can buy stamps in the business center and they may send your mail for you too.

Telephones

China Telecom is the nation's telecommunications provider and their blue and white signs are found in all towns, very often next to China Post. Here you can make international calls by a variety of means as well as send faxes, and in some larger cities, check your e-mail. China Telecom business hours are usually from 9 am to 8 pm although larger cities may have 24-hour offices. There are private booths, where you are charged by the minute (around $3 per minute to Europe or North America) , IC phonecards, which slot into public telephones (similar cost), and, cheapest of all, Internet phone (IP) cards where you have to dial an access number, tap in your pin and number and are then connected internationally. You can also buy SIM cards for your cell phone here, but be sure your phone is tri-band and the SIM you purchase enables international calls if you want to make or receive them. If you buy a SIM, you'll then have to purchase "pay as you go” top-up cards as you need them (keeping the old one to show staff when buying a new one makes getting the correct card easier) and note that you generally pay to receive calls. There are also public telephones and private telephone offices found everywhere. If you're staying in a mid-range or above hotel, you'll probably have IDD (International Direct Dialing) from your room, although you'll have to give a deposit of some sort to open the line. Also be aware that the hotel may charge for a call even if you didn't actually get through, and they map slap on a hefty surcharge.

To dial internationally, you'll need to tap in the correct country code (see below) and drop the first zero of the regional code. Within China, for local calls you dial the number without the code (unless calling from a cell phone), only adding the code if you're calling from another city. In Hong Kong and Macau, local calls are free from hotel phones.

International Dialing Codes

Australia – 00 61

Canada – 00 1

China – 00 86

Hong Kong – 00 852

Macau – 00 853

New Zealand – 00 64

UK – 00 44

US – 00 1

E-Mail

The Internet is very popular in China and all towns and cities have Internet cafés (many of which are 24-hr) where you can check your e-mail account, although speeds, standards and rates vary considerably. Recently there have been stricter controls on Internet cafés after a fatal fire in June 2002, although some argue that this was just an excuse to introduce stronger web filtering and thus restrict access to sensitive websites (see Media, Internet, below). Along with firewalls, you currently also have to register your passport to use the Internet in some cities such as Shanghai. In the cheapest cafés ($2) connection may not be that good and you're likely to find yourself surrounded by swarms of adolescent online gamers. Better cafés charge a little more ($5 upwards) and can offer quieter and sometimes quicker access. Many hostels and backpacker cafés also have a few computers for Internet use, and some even have wireless connection if you've brought a laptop. Big hotel business centers are pricier ($20 an hour upwards) but should offer the same speeds and services as their counterparts in other countries. These days many mid-range hotels have Internet connection and maybe even wireless in their guest rooms – look for the @ symbol in the hotel listings in this guide.

Media

The media in China is censored in all its forms, and editors may face jail time if they communicate unauthorized material. The state-run news agency, Xinhua (www.xinhuanet.com/english/), is the principal source of information and their choices about which stories to report and how to do so can be insightful. Hong Kong is a different story, with a wide variety of uncensored media.

Newspapers & Magazines

China's main English language newspaper, the ChinaDaily(www.chinadaily.com.cn/english), offers news reflecting the way the government would like foreigners to view China, along with a handy listings section, and it's available at bigger hotels throughout the country. The main Chinese language national is the People's Daily which is available in English online at www.english.people.com. There are also local English Language newspapers, such as the Shanghai Daily, which predominantly cover city and national news, but also give international round-ups. Magazines are principally Chinese-language and those that are in English are, as ever, heavily censored, but often contain interesting articles nonetheless – try China Today, which was established by Soong Qingling, wife of Dr. Sun Yatsen. In large cities you can find imported, unadulterated international magazines such as National Geographic, Newsweek and Time. Larger cities also have ex-pat-oriented magazines like City Weekend, which contain reviews, entertainment listings and stories that don't always toe the party line. You can find these magazines in bigger hotels and bars, restaurants and cafés popular with ex-pats, although some are available on the Internet – that's magazines (www.thatsmags.com) is one website to look for, with Beijing, Shanghai and Pearl River Delta editions.

Internet

In spite of the mammoth task it appears to be, the Chinese authorities are committed to controlling Internet use and thus they restrict access to certain websites, predominantly political or religious. But even Google was temporarily blocked in 2002and has recently agreed to remove websites that feature sensitive issues from its search results. On my most recent trip, www.wikipedia.com was inaccessible and in Shenzhen icons of police officers come up on screen when you enter a website or chatroom. Incoming digital documents are also monitored through a nationwide firewall that scans for combinations of suspect words. Thus, in terms of real news, the Internet can be a disappointing medium, but it offers insight on how the country operates, and it's worth trying to find what you want, since access levels vary.

Radio

On the radio you'll mostly hear a mix of Canto-pop and Mando-pop (see Music), opera, Taiwanese tracks and Western covers but, beyond music, unless you can understand Chinese, your options will be fairly limited. Some of the bigger cities have English-language stations such as Hit FM (77.7FM) and Easy FM (91.5FM), but otherwise it's a case of searching out the BBC World Service or Voice of America (see www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice and www.voanews.com for frequencies and schedules).

Television

A flick through China's TV channels can be an interesting experience, encompassing Beijing Opera, old war movies, ridiculous gameshows, costume dramas and authorized news. However, for English-language programs, unless you're staying in an upscale hotel, which might have CNN and international movie and sports networks, you'll need to check out CCTV9. This state-run English channel offers culture, news, sports and travel, all of it "approved,” although it can be informative nonetheless. You may even see Canadian Mark Rowswell (aka Dashan, meaning Big Mountain), arguably China's most famous foreigner, who has become a household name thanks to his flawless Mandarin, and still appears on CCTV educational shows. CCTV6 sometimes shows Western movies in English at around 10 pm. In Hong Kong, Pearl TV is the English-language channel and, as with most things in Hong Kong, it is far freer in its programming, with regular Hollywood movies and hit series such as Sex and the City and The West Wing.

Health

If you come to China for any length of time there is a chance you could get sick, and indeed, in winter, half the populace seems to be ill, but a few preparatory steps should help minimize any impact on your trip.

Minor Illnesses

Most people's fear is of stomach illness and in many countries around the world a change in cooking ingredients, oil and water can cause "Delhi belly,” "Montezuma's revenge,” "the Pharaoh's curse,” or whatever you want to call it. However, this is far less common in China, where fresh ingredients are cooked very quickly, at high temperatures. You can further reduce your chances of sickness by a few basic hygiene measures – wash your hands often, keep your nails clean and try not to share eating utensils. Water is another area to watch – drink only boiled or mineral water and brush your teeth with it as well. If you're going well off the beaten track it's worth taking water purification tablets along with you. In spite of precautions you could still end up with an upset stomach. If so, as long as it's nothing too serious, rest, plenty of water and rehydration salts generally resolve the problem. Try not to take diarrhea stoppers unless you have to travel, as they can make the problem linger. If you have longer-lasting symptoms, or blood or mucus in your stool, see a doctor.

Far more likely in this crowded country is a throat or chest infection brought about by a combination of germs from a billion Chinese spitting (see Etiquette), pollution and the difference in temperatures when changing from air-conditioning to sweltering heat. If it's nothing serious, lozenges can keep your throat lubricated; cold and flu remedies and rest should bring about recovery.

Mosquito-Borne Diseases

Mosquito-borne illnesses aren't a serious problem in most parts of China, but malaria and dengue fever do occur in the south, notably in Hainan and southern Yunnan. If you're visiting these regions during the summer, it might be worth taking anti-malarial prophylactics. While malaria is transmitted by the anopheles mosquito, which tends to bite from dusk onwards, the zebra-striped aedes aegpti,which can carry dengue fever, strikes in the daytime. But taking a few precautions should stop you from getting bitten in the first place. Keep covered up from sundown, wear repellent (containing some, but not too much DEET), burn mosquito coils and, if you have the inclination, buy a "hunter” – an electrified fly-swat in the shape of a small tennis racket available in Chinese supermarkets which, in very non-Buddhist fashion, eliminates the bugs.

AIDS, SARS & Bird Flu

While long denied by the authorities, AIDS is a serious problem in China, ever more so as the country relaxes its sexual attitudes. The situation is exacerbated by high levels of prostitution and the refusal of many men to wear condoms (which are easily available), along with increasing drug use in the south. However, the most worrisome of China's health risks are posed by potentially fatal new forms of flu viruses such as SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) and more recently bird flu. Although neither has, as yet, developed into the feared global pandemic, many experts say it is only a matter of time. If there is a suspected outbreak, travel can be seriously affected and then, of course, there's the risk posed by the disease itself, so see www.cdc.gov/travelfor the latest.

Getting Medical Attention

For more serious ailments or injuries, see a doctor, ideally at a hospital in a bigger city, where the chances of an English-speaking doctor (and better facilities) are greater. If there isn't anyone who speaks English, see Language, at the end of this guide. for some useful phrases. For less serious or longer-term problems it's interesting and sometimes beneficial to try some Traditional Chinese Medicine.

Before You Leave

There are a few things you can organize from home to further prepare for your trip. It's worth taking a small first aid kit with you, especially if you'll be heading off the beaten track. The following items make for a good, basic kit:

Antiseptic cream and wipes

Assorted plasters

Bandages

Butterfly stitches

Cold and flu remedy

Cotton wool

Dressings

Insect bite cream

Iodine

Rehydration sachets

Scissors

Sterile needle and suture kit

Surgical cream

Throat lozenges

Vitamin pills

Secondly, it's also a good idea to have some basic medicinal drugs with you. Although many drugs are easily available over the counter in China, communication may be an issue and in smaller towns you might not find what you need. So taking along antihistamines (for allergic reactions), an all-purpose antibiotic, a basic cold and flu remedy, diarrhea stoppers and painkillers might be useful, but check with your doctor for what's appropriate for you.

Thirdly, while you're not required to have any inoculations to enter China (unless you've come from a yellow fever-infected area), check that you are up-to-date with your vaccinations, particularly hepatitis A and B, tetanus, typhoid, tuberculosis. And if you plan to spend a lot of time with animals or out in the wilds, a rabies shot isn't a bad idea. Register at www.tripprep.com for an up-to-date list of recommended travel vaccines.

Restrooms

Restrooms in China are a far cry from North American norms, although things are no longer quite as bad as they used to be, especially in the big cities. Public restrooms are the lowest of the low, always squat rather than seat and often without partitions between users. And then there's the smell, which can be stomach-churning. In spite of all of these indignities there is often one more to add – having to pay (2-5 mao) to use some public toilets. You'll be able to buy tissues from the attendant since the restrooms obviously don't have them. Just one more point of note – the actual toilet is often just a trough, above which you squat and it's advisable to remove your sunglasses before you do so; many are the times as a tourleader that I heard shrieks from my guests as their expensive shades dropped into the trough, and some of them actually retrieved them! Of course if you've gotta' go, you've gotta' go, but whenever possible use restrooms in your hotel, a restaurant or a shopping center.

Safety

When compared to most Western countries China comes out as very safe, especially when you take into account the vast disparity between rich and poor. However, this isn't to say that crime is non-existent; indeed petty theft is increasingly common, although violent crime against tourists is almost unheard of. A few basic precautions should help you stay trouble-free. First, keep any valuables you have to take with you in a money-belt worn under your clothing. Second, be aware of your personal space (especially in crowded or heavily touristed areas) and if you're concerned about your other valuables such as your camera, keep them in front of you. Finally, avoid walking on unlit streets alone late at night.

If something does happen, then a few precautionary steps should at least minimize damages. Make photocopies of your passport including the visa page, insurance documents and tickets and leave one copy with friends or relatives and keep another with you, in a separate location from the actual documents. Always keep the aforementioned and your cash, credit cards and travelers' checks safely stowed in a money belt, or, if you don't need them, leave them in your hotel safe. Divide your money, only keeping a small amount out for your day's spending and keep an emergency stash of US dollars. If you have something stolen and want to make an insurance claim, you'll need a police report (see Insurance for details).

Warning – Scams

While China is a reasonably safe place to travel, there are those who will perceive you as a cashpot and who have invented ingenious ways of helping you to part with your money. The most common scam in China involves a couple of young women or teenage girls approaching you on the pretense of wanting to practice their English, which is invariably fairly good. After some chatting, they'll invite you either to an art display (usually owned by their "uncle”) or a café. In the case of the former you'll be pressured into buying overpriced art, while the latter will lead to you paying for the girls' food and drinks at inflated prices. If you refuse, the doors may be closed and a few heavies might appear, although I've never heard any reports of violence occurring – indeed if you stick to your guns, chances are they'll back off. But best of all is just to avoid the scenario. Another popular trick is claiming the bill you have given as payment is a fake and then demanding another, thereby sticking you with a forged note. This is particularly prevalent with $100 bills at phone card stalls – don't let your note out of sight.

A more alarming but less common scam is being offered some food or drink on a long-distance bus or train journey by someone you've been chatting with for a while. Later you wake up with a groggy head and no valuables. However, I must temper this tale with the fact that I've been traveling around China on public transport for years and have never fallen victim to this scam, or met anyone first-hand who has. There is a balance to be struck between caution and closing yourself off from the predominantly good and honest people of this land.

Emergency Services & the Public Security Bureau

If you need emergency assistance, the following numbers are applicable throughout the mainland: Police (tel.110); Fire (tel.119); Ambulance (tel.120) – see Emergency & Medical Services for the relevant numbers in Hong Kong and Macau. Although there should be an English speaker available at these numbers, try to have a Chinese speaker make the call. The police have far more extensive powers than their contemporaries in the West and while individual officers may be helpful to foreigners, it's probably best not to cross their path unless you have to, which you will if you have something stolen and need a police report – ask for the jing cha (police). The Public Security Bureau (PSB) deals with issues relating to visas (see Extending your Visa) but can also be contacted in emergencies – see individual chapters for PSB locations and telephone numbers.

Begging

While beggars are not as prevalent in China as in some other Asian or South American countries, as more and more rural Chinese flood to the cities, it is an increasingly serious problem. It's worth working out what your feelings are and how you will respond in advance as this will make situations easier to deal with. You may feel that begging begets begging and thus choose not to give anything to anyone, thereby hopefully instilling the concept that foreigners are not endless bags of money, and making the journey easier for those who come after you. Or you might choose to give food or pens rather than money, although this still ultimately leads to a form of dependency. As a tour leader, I once visited a small village that had probably never seen another foreigner. The people were a little bewildered initially but soon warmed up to be friendly and hospitable. As we were leaving, a member of my group gave a few bananas to the local kids, a seemingly innocuous gesture. On my return to this village a few months later with a different group we were immediately besieged by children demanding bananas!

If you want to be left alone, giving may seem like the easy option, but in some cases this may actually end up attracting more beggars to pounce on the "soft target.” And if you do give, the big question is then, to whom do you give? The cute little girl who tugs relentlessly at your leg or the old man passed out on the sidewalk – often those who are the most needy are also the least likely to benefit. And this is to say nothing of organized begging syndicates that sometimes put children out on the streets to work in order to generate sympathy and thus revenue. So, heart-rending as it is, the simplest solution may actually be not to give to anyone, instead making a charitable donation of time or money.

Charitable Organizations

China is the most populous country in the world and, while there are plenty of people who seem to be getting rich in the cities, there are an awful lot more who struggle to feed themselves. Access to clean water, healthcare, education and legal representation is far from universal and what is a small amount of money to you can make a big difference to those in need. There are worthwhile organizations mentioned in the individual city accounts (look for the Putting Something Back callouts), and the following registered charities can also provide information about other projects and will gladly accept donations.

www.actionaid.org/china

www.chineseredcross.org.cn/English

www.christian-aid.org.uk/world/where/asia/chinap

www.oxfam.org.hk

Photography

The old adage, take only photographs, leave only footprints, is a good one. This said, you should only take pictures of people who are happy to have their photo taken and also be aware that it's forbidden to take photographs at certain sites deemed of military importance (airports, bridges), and at some tourist locales like the Terracotta Warriors (although this rule is flagrantly ignored by many visitors). In popular tourist areas you may be asked to pay to take people's pictures – it's up to you whether you decide to do this, but bear in mind that, if you do, travelers who follow in your footsteps will certainly have to pay. The best way to get pictures of locals, though, is to strike up a conversation (or some kind of interaction) and offer to send them a copy of their picture. Make sure you fulfill your promise. For pictures of people, often you'll get the best picture by taking (or pretending to take) the posed photograph, then snapping another immediately afterwards, when the person has assumed a more natural posture or expression. While it's not always possible to coordinate your visit with the perfect time to take pictures, it's worth noting that early morning and late afternoon tend to offer the best light conditions. Mornings are also the time to catch the best street life, and many markets are at their busiest before the heat of day arrives.

When your camera memory stick is full you can take it to a photo developing shop and they'll put the images onto a CD (or print them) for you. For those who haven't joined the digital revolution, camera film is readily available and cheaper in China than at home. It's worth stocking up in reputable stores though, as stalls outside tourist sites are more expensive and the film may have suffered from sunlight exposure. Regardless of where you buy your film, you should always check the expiration date. There are also plenty of places, including Kodak stores, to get your pictures developed, but if you plan to have a lot of pictures processed, try one as a sample before committing yourself to rolls of washed-out photos. If you're a keen photographer and want taking pictures to be a major part of your trip then it's worth considering a photographic tour. Grasshopper (www.grasshopper adventures.com) runs excellent trips accompanied by Ewen Bell, an acclaimed photographer whose pictures are found in this book.

Etiquette

China's long history, so removed from Western civilization has left a minefield of different social customs that can initially be baffling to foreign visitors. Fortunately, the Chinese see foreigners as very different from themselves and in most situations cultural faux pas will be ignored. However, that isn't to say you shouldn't try to conform when in China – if you do your actions will be both noticed and appreciated.

saving Face

While the Chinese often find Western self-flattery unseemly, they are inherently a proud people and one of the driving forces in Chinese etiquette is the concept of "face,” which can be likened to dignity. Activities such as arguing in public will result in loss of face for both parties and thus are to be avoided at all costs. Nevertheless, in a country where private space is limited and summers are swelteringly hot, tempers can fray and you may well come across furious screaming matches out on the street – once they've started it's the one that can hold on the longest who will save most face. Face can also mean that a request or opinion (especially from a more senior employee or elder) won't be challenged, because it will cause loss of face. Thus contentious issues are often avoided or, when they are brought up, the "right” responses are given no matter what the party concerned actually intends to do.

Do's & Don'ts

Eating throws up a host of potential pitfalls for the visitor. While breaking wind, burping, sometimes spitting and generally making as much noise and mess as possible are all acceptable, other seemingly innocuous activities, such as using a toothpick, are not. If you wish to pick your teeth you should do so by hiding your mouth with your other hand. Chopsticks also offer more than just the problem of picking up your food with them (see Chopsticks callout). Likewise, drinking has a few associated protocols; toasts are so important that at formal dinners it's rude to drink without one, and you should try to keep your companions' glasses full, for they will surely do the same for you.

When meeting people, particularly in business, it is customary to make a small bow while clasping one hand over the other fist, although Chinese familiar with meeting Westerners may well just plunge straight in with a handshake. When presented with anything, you should receive it with both hands and, while a business card should be scrutinized before being carefully tucked away, a gift should be opened at a later time when not in the presence of its giver.

Studying & Working in China

Since China opened up in the early 1980s, people have been curious to come and experience life in the Middle Kingdom. Many come here to study traditional arts or the language and to teach English but, since China has found its economic feet, more and more people are coming here to do business (see Business Travel below).

Study

If you want to study the language, universities are the best bet – your local embassy should be able to provide you with a list of suitable universities, but there are also a host of other types of schools, including some where you teach English (see below) in return for your lessons. There are also schools that use traditional arts (such as calligraphy, painting, kung fu and tai chi – see Martial Arts for the latter two) as vehicles to teach the language. Wherever you choose to study, you'll get better results if you fully immerse yourself and cut yourself off from the English-language world. There are language and cultural studies schools mentioned in the relevant chapters, although some of these are aimed at short-term visitors. Good websites for cultural studies and language studies include www.educasian.com and www.worldlinkedu.com. Officially enrolled students with school identity cards will enjoy substantial discounts at all major sights.

Teaching English

In order to legally teach you need a working visa, which can be obtained with the school's help, although some places will let you carry on teaching with a standard tourist visa. Good schools might require you to have a degree or TEFL qualification, but plenty of places just want a foreign face to look good for the parents. Salaries typically range from US$400 to US$800 per month and hours might be as few as 15 or as many as 30 a week. Many places offer accommodation, food and maybe even a bicycle as part of the bargain!

If you're serious about your teaching, then it's best to head for a high school or one of the major private schools where you should find all the teaching materials and staff support you need; some of the cowboy operations will just send you into a classroom of mixed-age, mixed-ability children with no preparation whatsoever – "OK kids, today we're going to learn about Christmas.…”

Other Jobs

If you're posted to China by an international company, then many of your relocation needs are likely to be met by a specialist company that can help arrange moving, housing and domestic care. If, on the other hand, you arrive by yourself with no prospects, just a burning desire to work in China, do not despair. It's fairly easy to pick up some kind of work, perhaps teaching English, to support yourself in the beginning until you find the job you're after. Expat websites such as that's magazines (see Information Sources) have job listings, as does China Daily. Speaking some Chinese will improve your prospects. In all work categories the highest wages are found in the big cities, but obviously the cost of living is also higher.

Business Travel

As China opens itself up to more foreign trade, the number of business visitors is increasing. Opportunities are predominantly in joint venture companies and, with such great potential for both manufacture and consumption, it's no wonder the race is on to grab a piece of the pie. However, doing business in China is not the same as in Europe or North America and many newcomers find these differences frustrating. The Chinese are master business tacticians and, while they are gracious and hospitable hosts, they are operating in their own country and have a few moves up their sleeve. Thus, the better you're prepared for your trip, the more profitable it is likely to be and, to this end, the tips below should help.

Business Do's & Don't's

Get a China consultant and/or a translator. If this is the first time you've done business in China recruiting a China consultant can help to put you on more level footing with your new Chinese business partner. A consultant will probably speak the language, though it's also a good idea to organize your own translator (fanyi). Interpreters tend to be arranged by the host company and in this case you may feel you're not always getting the full picture, probably because you aren't. The Chinese know they are free to talk openly and that their translator will provide a suitably censored version for your ears. Taking your own translator won't make you any friends but it will offer you more insight into what's going on. The not-for-profit US-China Business Council (www.uschina.org) and the China Britain Business Council (www.cbbc.org) are good starting points.

Be aware of the importance of personal connections (guanxi). Although guanxi isn't the dominating force it once was, business in China is based much more on close personal ties than at home. Old friends or colleagues with suspect business practices may be preferred to an unknown newcomer with a good track record. As long as an individual is liked and trusted, business can proceed, which means it's important to make a good impression during your visit. Although part of this is clearly about your business proposal, adhering to the etiquette practices mentioned in the previous section will also play a role. In order to build up the required relationship you may need to invest much more time than you might have anticipated, so be prepared for lots of banquets and karaoke (KTV) bars before you start to head in the right direction.

Account for the importance of superstition (see Beliefs and Superstitions for more). Although it may seem crazy to you in this modern business age, some decisions may be based on how auspicious a certain date (or figure) is and production might be delayed until then. Fengshui, also known as geomancy (see Fengshui) also has its part to play here and if a location is perceived to have bad fengshui (and thus future prospects) the whole deal could go sour.

Maintain face. Whoever you're doing business with will know that you'll only be in the country for a set period of time and have to make all kind of decisions while you're there; Chinese business people have an uncanny knack of knowing when you're at your most vulnerable (probably when you think the deal is signed, sealed and delivered) and will use this moment to throw a spanner into the works. What is of crucial importance is how you deal with such situations. If you can resist being confrontational and expressing anger about it, focusing instead on the bigger picture, your face-saving attitude will be appreciated and might bring about the resolution you seek.

Have a banquet! If you've spent a substantial (and successful) period of time doing business here, host a banquet, inviting all your newfound colleagues. A China consultant can help you choose a suitable restaurant and dishes. Make sure you pay ahead of time and are at the venue at least half an hour before the banquet. See A Chinese Banquet for more.

Family Travel

Traveling as a family is becoming increasingly popular and can be a thoroughly rewarding experience if you plan your trip well. One of the most important things to think about is balancing your itinerary well so that you're not too rushed and can take in sights that appeal to all the family. While you might be fascinated by Taoist temples and historic monuments, visit more than a few with young kids and you may have a mutiny on board the family ship. The Chinese place great importance on children (even more since the one-child policy went into effect) and traveling as a family unit you will be warmly welcomed everywhere you go. There are some great places to visit as a family, particularly Yangshuo and Hong Kong, and the other cities have attractions kids will love, from movies to theme parks and shows. Each chapter of this guide has a "For Families” section detailing a few good options. Entry into most major sights is half-price for children under 3.9 feet high.  If you'd like to go on a tour with other families, there are tour companies that run trips with itineraries which take the needs of the whole family into account (see Specialized Tours).To enjoy some time away from the kids (or vice versa …), international chain hotels often have babysitting facilities, starting from around $30 (US$4) an hour. Baby strollers can be a problem since access to sights, restaurants and hotels isn't always easy and sidewalks can be decidedly uneven. If you're traveling with a baby, you'll find formula, baby food and disposable nappies available at supermarkets.

Adoption

The enormous population, historic preference for boys over girls (see Gender Imbalance), and the one-child policy have all contributed to the large number of orphaned children in China. In 1993 several Western countries signed the Hague Convention on inter-country adoption and, later the same year, China instituted formal regulations to allow foreigners to adopt Chinese babies. Since then over 50,000 babies have been adopted, 80% of them by Americans. The children come from all over the country, but the White Swan Hotel in Guangzhou is where many adoptions actually take place. If you would like to adopt a child, www.childrenshopeint.org and www.travelchinaguide.com/essential/adoption offer detailed information on the subject.

Disabled Travelers

Although there are a great number of disabled people in China, provision for the disabled is still very limited. As the country's economy booms, many cities resemble construction sites and there are countless hazards, such as uneven paving, bridges and gaping holes to negotiate. Public transport is seldom wheelchair-friendly. Wheelchairs are available from hospitals and at some tourist locations, but you can't count on these. Ensure that you bring all required specialist equipment and medication with you. Your trip will also be made smoother if you find out as much as possible about where you're going and what the facilities are before your trip. Hong Kong and, to a lesser extent, Macau, offer better provisions for disabled visitors, which are detailed in the tourist office's Hong Kong Access Guide for Disabled Visitors and on the web at www.discoverhongkong.com/eng/travelneeds/disabled.index. Certain hotel chains, including Holiday Inn, the Hyatt, the Sheraton, the Shangri-La and the Marriott, have facilities and rooms suitable for disabled people, although it's worth checking before you book. Listed hotels with rooms suitable for the disabled are marked DA, while those with wheelchair access mention this in the description. Going on an organized trip can alleviate some of the planning, but if you want to go it alone, the following organizations can help:

Mobility International USA (tel.001-541-1343-1284, www.miusa.org)

Society for Accessible Travel and Hospitality (SATH; 001-212-4477-284, www.sath.org)

Female Travelers

When compared with many other developing countries, travel for women in China presents few problems. Although you may well be stared at, this is invariably more of a curious gaze than an intimidating ogle. Indeed female travelers are more likely to be ignored than hassled. This said, in the far northwest more vigilance is advised and, as with anywhere, you'd be wise to take a few basic precautions, such as avoiding unlit areas late at night. Dress for women is fairly liberal and in the cities mini-skirts and skimpy tops are commonplace, though in rural areas you may feel more comfortable in conservative clothing.

Gay Travelers

Although homosexuality was long regarded a foreign peculiarity it is increasingly prominent in China, and loosely tolerated, if officially denied and illicit. The big cities have gay bars where foreigners may be approached, but be aware that public displays of affection are likely to cause a stir. Check out www.gay.com or www.utopia-asia.com for more on China's gay scene.

Facts & Figures

Electrical Current

Mainland and Macau electricity supply is 220V through flat two-pin and angled flat three-pin plugs, although you'll also find round three-pin sockets! In Hong Kong the voltage is 200V and plugs are of the square three-pin variety (the same as the UK). Thus, a travel adaptor is a good idea.

Time Zone

Remarkable as it seems, all of China follows the same time zone, eight hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time, 13 hours ahead of Eastern Standard Time, 16 hours ahead of Pacific Standard Time and two hours behind Australian Eastern Standard Time.

Weights & Measures

China predominantly uses the metric system, most obvious as kilometers for road distances (one km=0.62 mile). Market goods such as fruit are measured by the jin, which is half a kilogram (1.1 lb) and cloth is measured by the meter (3.28 ft).

Accommodation

At the dawn of modern tourism in China in the 1980s foreigners were only allowed to stay in certain designated hotels, but these days many more options are open, from five-star splendor to five-dollar dorms. However, when compared to some other countries, hotels in China are fairly characterless and functional, although there are more and more exceptions to this, and not just in the luxury bracket (see Escaping the Ordinary).

As in most countries, room rates reflect standards to an extent, but mid-range and budget hotels are generically styled and don't tend to reduce their tariff as they deteriorate. Thus the best value (and keenest staff) are often found in newer lodgings. In terms of customer service, expensive hotels may meet the standards of their Western counterparts, but equally they may not, and in many mid-range hotels you may get the distinct impression that the staff thinks customers should feel privileged for being able to stay! Worse still, in places that see few foreigners, I've witnessed reception staff hiding behind the counter to avoid serving the lao wai (foreigners)! Something to remember every time you check into a hotel is to take one of their business cards, which has the hotel's Chinese name. Then you can go out, explore and get as lost as you like, then just jump in a cab when you want to come home.

Price Codes

The price codes used in this book are based on the cheapest double room a hotel has in the high season (May to October). Thus, where two codes are mentioned, it means the range of rooms is such as to encompass different price brackets. Note that there's a 15% luxury tax added to room prices in upscale hotels (although this is often offset by a discounted rate). Discounts on advertised rates are almost standard and you should always try to strike a bargain. For dormitories the prices per bed are individually listed.

Note that hotels in Hong Kong and Macau are significantly more expensive than on the mainland and these chapters have their own price codes.

Hotel Categories

Hotels in China are awarded stars according to their facilities and a good deal can also be ascertained from their Chinese name categories (binguan, dajiudian, dajiulou, fandian, zhaodaisuo, luguan, in descending order of quality), although the divide between these can be blurry. While these categories imply certain standards, you're better off making your own judgment on the room rate. To see hotel classifications in this book, look at the hotel's pinyin name in the language box. Regardless of price, in your room you'll find some source of hot drinking water for making tea and a pair of plastic slippers, along with other any other amenities afforded. Almost all upscale and some mid-range hotels offer fitness centers (FC), swimming pools (SW) and in-room Internet access (@), but only a few have rooms with facilities for disabled people (DA) – see individual hotels for symbols.

Expensive ($$$$-$$$$$; binguan, dajiudian, dajiulou, fandian). In the big cities, international chains offer the same high standards and (sometimes) service as they do worldwide, with prices to match (US$100 and upwards), and some of them even manage to inject a dose of flavor along with the luxury. These hotels are often well-located in the heart of the city, have all amenities, including countless restaurants, health facilities, swimming pools, Internet connection and, sometimes, a computer in the room, and front desk staff will generally speak some English. Chinese chains can offer similar services and facilities, although some of the finer points may be lacking.

Mid-range ($$-$$$; binguan, dajiudian, dajiulou, fandian). Almost every town of any size will have a hotel that falls into this category and, while standards and prices can vary enormously, you should at least be able to find a decent room in such a place. Rates for a double room in such hotels can start from 150 Yen (US$20), although 300 Yen (US$40) and upwards is more normal, especially in larger cities. If the room is too rich (or poor) for your taste, then ask at reception as many mid-range places have recently renovated smarter floors, and older, more decrepit, cheaper ones. Mid-range establishments should have rooms with attached bathrooms, TV and air conditioning, though they might be threadbare. There will also be laundry service, a restaurant, a travel desk of some sort and maybe a business center. Again, in these places you'll probably find someone who has a smattering of English.

Budget ($). Below 150 Yen (US$20) zhaodaisuo, luguan, university rooms and hostels (see below) form the bulk of the options, but seemingly mid-range places can creep into this category.

In luguan and zhaodaisuo dorm beds go for as little as $20 a night and there are rooms for $40, but these will be very basic and maybe not that clean. For a little more you can usually get a dirt-free, comfortable and secure room, possibly with a TV and attached bathroom, though you might have to look around in a few places. In the cheapest lodgings the toilets are invariably of the squat variety. Almost all places have some kind of canteen or restaurant, usually serving cheap, local fare, and the floor attendants also often have a cabinet of snacks and drinks for sale.

Budget accommodation is often clustered around transport hubs such as the bus or railway station, which is convenient for travel, but may be a long way from the town center, and not as pleasant a locale to stay in. This said, some hostels can be quite central and university lodgings, while often in the suburbs, usually have parks, gardens and trendy cafés or nightspots nearby. In some provincial cities and rural settlements budget options are still limited, since many places may not be authorized to let foreigners' stay. In such situations speaking a little Chinese can ease your path.

Hostels

As the backpacking scene heats up in China there are also increasing numbers of hostels, affiliated with HI (Hostelling International) or otherwise. HI places offer a slight discount to card-carrying members. You can become a member online at www.hiusa.org (US), www.hihostels.ca (Canada), www.yha.org.uk (UK), www.yha.com.au (Australia), www.yha.co.nz (New Zealand), which costs around US$30 per year.

Rooms in HI places are generally clean but cramped and cheap, and they always have dorms (duorenjia; 50 Yen/US$6 or less) and sometimes an Internet café and bar, but some places with the name hostel might be more like mid-range hotels. Hostels are often centrally located and, for solo travelers, they make amenable places to meet other backpackers. The better HI hostels and linked U-Tel Hotels generally offer organized tours to points of interest and may run more adventurous pursuits such as hiking or cultural experiences like dumpling-making. They can also book hostels in other cities for you and can arrange bus, train and plane tickets for a small commission. Hostels also often have bicycles for rent and are good places to share experiences and pick up tips for destinations farther along your route. To book hostels in advance, either look up the individual websites listed in the relevant accommodation section, or check out one of the hostel booking sites: www.hostels.com, www.hostelbookers.com or www.hostelworld.com.

Booking & Finding a Room

While those on a budget may prefer to check out a few places before deciding where to stay, in the busiest times, such as holidays, or if you're arriving late or have only a little time to spend in a place, booking ahead is advisable. Almost all hotels listed in this book have at least a telephone number and many have e-mail or web addresses, but, outside of the better hotels or most tourist-friendly towns, you'll be lucky to find anyone who speaks any English on the telephone and websites may be Chinese-only. Therefore, if possible, have a Chinese speaker make the call (maybe someone from the hotel you're staying in), or get all your bookings made in advance through an agent such as Choice Travel (www.choicetravel.cn) or CITS (www.cits.net) – or on the Internet, which might also yield healthy discounts. Some useful accommodation booking websites include:

www.ase.net

www.chinatravel.com

www.ctrip.com

www.elong.com

www.travelchinaguide.com

But, if you decide to check out a few places before committing, it's a good idea to store your bag in one of the luggage lockers or offices at the bus or train station and then head out, unencumbered, to look at some rooms. This can save you from a wild goose chase where you end up accepting any old room because you're too tired to carry your bag. Of course, if you're after a budget deal, it may well be very close to the station, but, if it's an isolated place miles away (as is sometimes the case with university accommodation), then it's worth calling ahead to check if they're open and have availability.

Room Categories

Upon arrival, bear in mind that advertised rates are often open to negotiation, especially out of season. First you'll need to tell the receptionist the kind of room you're after, which is not always as simple as it sounds. Upscale hotels have rooms similar to those found in Europe and North America, but in some mid-range and most budget places there are a bewildering array of standards and sizes, so if you're not happy with what you see first, it's worth asking about other types. As a single traveler you'll usually be shown rooms with one single bed (danrenfang), while couples might also initially be offered twin rooms (shuangrenfang). In either case, for a double bed request a dachuang (for accommodation terms see Language at the end of this guide). There are also sometimes larger rooms with as many as eight beds. If you're traveling in a group and want to economize, ask about these. As a single traveler it's also possible to share a room with strangers to save money (as the Chinese frequently do), although this isn't an option commonly presented to foreigners except where dorms (duorenjia) are involved.

Checking in & Practicalities

When you check-in you'll need your passport and will have to fill in a registration form. In cheaper places this form will be in Chinese, so you may need some assistance and the staff might need help deciphering your passport. You have to pay in advance and more expensive places may also request a credit card imprint as security, while those of a lower standard will need the equivalent of an extra night (or sometimes two) as deposit. At the bottom end of the spectrum (probably anything below $100), you may not be given a key, just a slip of paper to hand to the floor attendant who will open your room for you. But if you want a key it's often possible to pay another few yuan for this. Fear of damage, loss and theft runs high and in the room you'll find a "price list” in the event of guests breaking or stealing hotel property! Although hotels are generally fairly secure it's never worth testing this by leaving valuables lying around – more upscale rooms might have a safe, while others have one at reception. You should get a receipt for exactly what you deposit.

Escaping the Ordinary Hotel

After the beauty and character of some lodgings in other Asian countries, China's accommodation comes as a bit of a let down, but all is not lost – there are hotels that are more than just places to stay, at all levels of the price spectrum. Indeed some of the best are simple, but tastefully styled small hotels. While top hotels can certainly offer luxury, you often get the feeling you could be in any city anywhere in the world. The expensive options in the list below escape this uniformity and are decidedly unique.

Lusongyuan, Beijing $$-$$$$

Red Capital Ranch, Great Wall, Beijing $$$$$

The Commune, Great Wall, Beijing $$$$$

Grand Hyatt, Shanghai $$$$$

Number 9, Shanghai $$$$

Pingjiang Lodge, Suzhou $$$$

Old Street Hotel, Tunxi $$$

The Hotel of Modern Art, Guilin $$$$$

Mountain Retreat, Yangshuo $$

Jia, Hong Kong $$$$-$$$$$

The Peninsula Hotel, Hong Kong $$$$

Pousada de Sao Tiago, Macau $$$$

Pousada de Coloane, Macau $$$

Homestays

Staying in someone's home is a great way to really experience Chinese life and can be inexpensive as well. Host families often speak some English, but if they don't it's a sure way to develop your Chinese. For more information, check American International Homestays (www.commerce.com/homestays), or www.chinahomestay.org, who can also arrange longer stays.

Food & Drink

Noodle-making

Eating and drinking is something taken very seriously in China and, while you may feel you know what to expect, based on Chinese restaurants around the globe, think again. Most overseas Chinese restaurant dishes are only loosely based on Cantonese cooking, one of the four major styles, and specialization in each one of these runs deeper than you could imagine, with some chefs spending decades perfecting just one dish. Thus part of exploring China should definitely involve exploring its cuisine; not only is it mouth-wateringly tasty, but it is such a fundamental part of life here that it gives real insight into the nature of the country. Food is such an important facet of the culture that a basic greeting like "ni chi baole ma?” which is used to mean "how are you?” translates as "have you eaten yet?” China's new economy is based on business deals cut over extravagant banquets and all the major festivals have associated snacks or dishes.

What is also striking, especially in the south, is the incredible variety of food available and its freshness. In this region live animals such as bamboo rats, dogs and snakes can be seen caged outside restaurants, just waiting to be ordered! This can be most shocking to Western eyes.

Price Codes

The price codes are based on a standard meal for one (meaning a single dish at the cheapest end of the scale, with rice and a beer or soft drink).

While cheap meals can be found in Hong Kong and Macau, eating out is generally a more expensive proposition than on the mainland and both of these destinations have their own price codes.

Chopsticks

Chinese restaurants are so ubiquitous that chopsticks are hardly a new thing in the West, but do you know how they came into being 3,000 years ago? Originally much larger versions were used to stir and remove food during cooking (and these can still be seen), but over time they were refined into the chopsticks we know today. The Chinese name, kuaizi, translates as quick (or nimble) sticks and that's exactly what they are, enabling the diner to eat comfortably using only one hand. It is normal to hold them with your right hand, which avoids clashing elbows at circular tables, and the best leverage is gained from holding them two-thirds of the way up. The bottom stick should remain immobile while the top one is held like a pen to manipulate the food. Don't worry too much about your ability (or lack thereof) with chopsticks as you'll be forgiven your faux pas. But there are a couple of things you should avoid doing. Passing food with chopsticks or sticking them vertically into your bowl will cause offence as these actions are associated with funeral rites. To indicate that you've finished eating, simply rest your chopsticks horizontally across the top of your bowl.

Restaurants tend to offer plastic, metal or ceramic chopsticks, and most canteens will provide disposable wooden ones, which causes hundreds of trees to be cut down daily. The cheapest places might only have washed wooden versions, so if you plan on eating in a lot of these places (and want to help the environment) it's worth carrying your own pair.

The Four Major Styles

Chinese diets were historically defined by the kind of crops grown and animals that could be reared or hunted in a given area. Thus wheat-based noodles, bread and, to a lesser extent, potatoes are the staples in the north while the balmy south is a land of rice, which has been cultivated in China since 5000 BC! Outside influences also had their part to play as you will find when sampling Macanese and Portuguese delights in Macau. Local cuisines further developed according to the quality and availability of particular ingredients. As you travel through the country you will be confronted by new local specialties at every turn, and if you take advantage of these it will add both flavor and understanding to the regional differences in your journey. But in this modern day the various styles have managed to permeate most areas of the country and, while less popular and probably less tasty than the local delicacies, Cantonese dim sum can be chosen in Beijingor Mongolian hotpot ordered in Guangzhou. The four major regional styles are detailed below, though these can be subdivided countless more times.

Southern (Guangdongcai)

Cantonese food is the epitome of the southern style and is the most globally renowned, though it's still very different in Guangdong than London or New York. Sweet and sour dishes are a case in point, rarely offering any of their contrasting "sour” promise outside of China. Hong Kong and Guangzhou are at the heart of Cantonese cuisine, but the surrounding provinces, including Guangxi, are strongly influenced by the style. Southerners are famous within China for eating "anything whose back faces the sun” and as such the southern style can offer some of the most unsettling dishes the country has to offer, including dog, cat and snake. But these dishes won't come unless you order them and Cantonese food is typified by super fresh ingredients, lots of seafood and light palatable sauces. Best of all, dim sum(dian xin in pinyin) includes an astounding variety of miniature buns, dumplings and spring rolls served from trolleys circulating the restaurant, typically at breakfast time. The fact you can see the dishes before ordering makes dim sum an easy way for the non-Chinese speaker to choose! Other dishes to try include sandpots (sha bao), one-person pots of steamed rice, vegetables and meat.

Northern (Beifangcai)

Mandarin cuisine is the elite of the Northern style, derived from the food of emperors, and Beijing duck is its most celebrated offering. More generally though, Northern food is less glamorous, but no less tasty, with salty garlic, ginger and onion flavored dishes and staples of mantou (steamed buns), noodles (mian) and pancakes (bing), as well as numerous varieties of jiaozi (dumplings usually filled with pork and leek or cabbage), for which Xi'an is particularly famous.

Dishes for the Fearless

Seahorses in sticks

A host of seemingly unpalatable foods, including cow's blood, chicken's feet, duck's tongue, rat, scorpion, snake and shark's fin, are eaten in China, particularly in the south. The reason for the amazing diversity of food consumed is partly rooted in Traditional Chinese Medicine following beliefs about balancing the various elements of the body to improve health. Thus, dog is seen as warming in the winter, cat is cooling in summer and snake offers male virility! This variety is also partly borne of necessity – many of the insects consumed today were initially eaten due to famine. The purported health benefits do little to encourage most visitors to try such dishes, but don't worry about mistakenly being served them – they're fairly easy to spot even on Chinese-only menus, as they tend to be the most expensive. If you're feeling adventurous, there are some tamer dishes to try which are still well out of the ordinary – try a green centered Thousand Year Old Egg (pidan), which has been preserved for months in straw and ash!

Eastern (Huaiyangcai)

Eastern cooking uses lots of bamboo, mushrooms, seafood and freshwater fish, although its often heavy use of oil can make it unpalatable to some. Shanghainese (shanghaicai) cuisine is at the refined end of the eastern scale and offers wide varieties of lightly cooked, miniscule treats akin to dim sum, most notably xiaolongbao (steamed pork dumplings).

Western (Szechuancai)

Szechuan and Hunan are famed for their spicy dishes, which are arguably the hottest you'll find anywhere in the world. In Szechuanese cooking the meat or tofu is merely a vehicle allowing the chili-laden sauce to deliver its knockout punch. Flavors are carefully constructed to produce strange-sounding but delicious dishes such as fish-flavored pork (which contains no fish), but the real trick is being able to differentiate any of the manifold tastes after your mouth has been numbed by the fragrant, potent huajiao (flower pepper).

Culinary Experiences Not to Miss

African Chicken – this very un-Chinese sounding spicy dish has its roots in the Portuguese trade routes of yesteryear and can be enjoyed throughout Macau.

Beggar's Chicken (jiaohuaji) – this delicious eastern dish allegedly first came into being when a beggar who had no cooking utensils was given a chicken and ingeniously packed mud around the bird to cook it in his fire. To his surprise this method not only cooked the chicken perfectly, but also removed the feathers when the baked mud casing was cracked open.

Beijing duck (beijing kaoya) – crispy oven-roasted duck in wafer-thin pancakes with spring onions and plum sauce is the dish to try in the capital.

Caramelized Apples (basi pinguo) – other than seasonal fresh fruit, desserts aren't that common in Chinese restaurants and this dish of sliced apples coated in caramelized sugar makes for a wonderfully sweet change.

Mapo Tofu (mapo dofu) – the spiciest tofu Szechuan has to offer.

Crossing the Bridge Noodles (guoqiaomian) – a kind of miniature one-person hotpot, this Yunnanese dish was supposedly devised by a Qing scholar's wife in order to keep his food warm when she carried it out to his place of study, by covering it in a layer of insulating oil.

Dim Sum (dian xin) – the archetypal Cantonese breakfast made up of dozens of miniature taste sensations (see The Four Major Styles, Southern, above).

Drunken Prawns (zuixia) – prawns marinated in alcohol.

Dumpling Banquet (jiaozi yanhui) – a northern specialty with innumerable elaborate stuffed parcels, generally served in fine surroundings.

Fish-flavored Pork (yuxiang rousi) – a spicy Szechuanese dish with sauce that supposedly imitates the taste of fish.

Gongbao Chicken (gongbao jiding) – this dish of diced chicken, peanuts (or cashews), chilies and flower peppers is at its hottest and best in Szechuan, but you'll find versions of it in restaurants throughout the country.

Hotpot (huoguo) – a bowl of bubbling broth (sometimes divided into a spicy half and a vegetable stock half, known as yuan-yuang huoguo) into which you dip wafer-thin strips of meat and assorted vegetables. This is my favorite meal to eat in a group and is popular throughout the country, particularly in Chongqing and Szechuan.

Stretched Noodles (lamian) – this Hui (Muslim) dish is usually prepared with beef, chili, coriander and leek or spring onion and is to be enjoyed as much for its preparation as its consumption. The noodles are made by continually stretching the dough between the fingers with a wide sweeping motion of the arms. Seconds later the noodles will be dropped in to cook and just a few minutes after that you'll be tucking into them. Around the country you'll find clean, simple canteens offering a hearty bowl of beef stretched noodle soup for under a dollar, which can't be beat on a cold winter's day.

Sweet and Sour Fish (tangcu yu) – the contrast between the two elemental flavors of this Cantonese dish has made it popular around the world, but you need to try it in southern China to experience the real deal.

Yangshuo Beer Fish (yangshuo pijiu yu) – the specialty dish of this rural region, Beer Fish lives up to its name and is cooked in the local brew, Liquan, until it is so succulent it falls off the bone.

Where to Eat

China has a mind-boggling array of eating options, many of them ridiculously cheap. If you're on a budget, there are tiny canteens where you can eat for under a dollar, but for not a lot more there are private dining rooms and regional specialties just waiting. Dining in China is a social affair and, if you're traveling in a group or on business, you may find yourself in a lavish Chinese banquet hall. Conversely, for the single traveler, restaurants offer a hurdle; Chinese food is designed to be eaten by groups sharing a number of different dishes that offer a wide variety of tastes and textures. On your own you'll only be able to manage one of these dishes and thus part of the essence of eating in China is lost – indeed, sitting by yourself with your one dish in a restaurant surrounded by noisy groups, you may feel even more out of place than usual. However, there is some salvation for the single traveler – canteens and street vendors offer meals for one and, although choices are more limited, it's generally cheap and tasty fare and you won't be the only one dining alone. Bear in mind that people eat early in China; breakfast is from 6-9 am, lunch from 11 am-2 pm and dinner from 5-9 pm. After that you may have to hunt out a street stall or fast food joint.

Canteens

Every town in China has plenty of these small, cheap, hole-in-the-wall, places whose appearance often belies the excellent fare sold within. From Muslim-owned beef or mutton noodle ventures to hotpot and dumpling joints, canteens usually specialize in just a few tasty dishes and will also offer drinks, chopsticks and napkins, but not much else.

Restaurants

Restaurants range from lavish affairs (often in upscale hotels) to smaller family businesses. Traditionally they have three floors, the bottom of which may be more akin to a canteen, the middle a standard restaurant and the top housing private dining rooms (for which you may have to pay a supplement). These days private rooms often come complete with KTV equipment, should you want to sing for your supper! Tables are usually circular, with a Lazy Susan (rotating turntable) in the center of the table to liven things up! Staff tend to be neatly dressed in matching uniforms and will make sure that your glass or teacup never runs dry.

Markets & Streetfood

China's streets and markets are alive with food vendors night and day and, if you're on a budget, in a hurry or traveling alone, streetfood is the way to go. What you find varies from region to region but you're sure to come across excellent barbecued mutton skewers (usually sold by Muslims from the northwest), boiled or roast corn on the cob (the latter is often chilied), noodles, dumplings and steamed buns, along with a host of other choices. Street vendors often have a few chairs and tables and may sell beer, while more elaborate set-ups in nightmarkets can resemble outdoor restaurants with all the food on display. In touristy areas always ask the price before ordering, as even though it still won't add up to much, some places will inflate prices enormously for foreigners.

Food is so cheap in China that cooking for yourself is rarely worthwhile as a traveler, but if you are here for longer, want a change or would like to stock up for a long journey, markets are packed with choices as well as great places to check out local life. Not so long ago, local produce would be all that was available, but these days you'll find tropical fruit for sale in Beijing's markets, even in winter.

Western Food

While China is a culinary adventure, every now and then Western food can bring a welcome shot of familiarity; just don't expect it to be exactly the way it is back home. Dairy products used to be very difficult to track down (outside of western and northwestern China), but in this time of the single child policy all parents want their kid to grow up big and strong, and calcium, hence milk, cheese and yogurt, are increasingly available, although you may still struggle in smaller towns and rural areas. Breakfast is a meal where many foreigners find Chinese food the hardest to stomach; congee (rice porridge) or noodles just don't cut it for everyone at 7 am and, though mid-range hotels may have some kind of Western fare included in their breakfast spread, the orange juice is likely to be warmed and toast and eggs may be the best you get. International chain hotels tend to offer a far better spread. For those on a budget, help is at hand in the form of a common Chinese dish that makes for an excellent Western-style breakfast – scrambled eggs and tomato (xihongshi chaodan).

Fast Food

When you need a Western fix, China has an ever-increasing array of options, the dominant flagships of which are predictably KFC, McDonalds and Pizza Hut, although there are domestic burger chains too, notably Dicos. Coffee shops like Coffee Language, UBC Coffee and Starbucks are also a recent phenomenon sweeping the cities, and, in addition to a good choice of drinks, they often serve reasonable Western fare such as pizzas, sandwiches and steaks. Similar items can be found at backpacker cafés (notably in Yangshuo in Guangxi) and Western-style pubs that have emerged in the bigger cities. Larger hotel restaurants may also have some Western options on their menus.

Vegetarian Options

Being a vegetarian in China sounds easy enough, given the sheer number of vegetable dishes in the country's cuisine and its Buddhist history, along with the imitation meat dishes made from tofu popularized since the Qing dynasty. However, it really depends on how strict you are in your definition of vegetarian, since many of these vegetable dishes will have involved meat somewhere along the way, be it in the sauce, the fat, or the small pieces of pork or shrimp you find in your "fried cabbage”! Telling your waiter that you don't eat meat ("wo bu chi rou”) might help, but, to be clearer, say you're a Buddhist ("wo shi fojiao tu”), who generally abstain from meat. Aside from the small number of purely vegetarian and Indian restaurants found in the biggest cities, the only way to be certain is to eat at one of the Buddhist dining halls in temples and monasteries throughout the country, although the food can be a little bland due to the lack of garlic, ginger and onion, which are considered too "stimulating.”

A Chinese Banquet

In a country so overpopulated, the availability of food is something to be celebrated and the Chinese banquet is the focal point for this. If you come on business you'll almost certainly enjoy at least one of these lavish displays of wealth, which often involve the host paying weeks in advance to prevent anyone else trying to do so on the night of the event. Expect lots of extravagant dishes, lots of toasts and as much noise as possible. Indeed the Chinese word for "having a good time,” renao, literally means hot and noisy, something all banquets worth their salt should emulate.

Ordering Food

Unfortunately, accessing China's cornucopia of foods isn't always straightforward, principally because of the language barrier. Thus, many travelers leave with less than the full picture after a trip overrun with dumplings, noodles and stir fries. However, there are several ways to combat this and ensure you get the most from your chopsticks.

Go to restaurants with an English menu – this is an easy way to start, although be aware that the English menu will probably have only a fraction of the dishes the kitchen can actually prepare, those that they think will appeal to foreigners, which are often blander or less exotic in their ingredients.

If there isn't an English menu, start with the language section at the end of this book, which gives both the pinyin and the Chinese characters for all the phrases and dishes listed in this section, along with many more. When ordering, bear in mind they're more likely to have dishes from the region which you're in (keyi jieshao yidao cai ma literally "can you introduce a dish?” is always a good question to ask).

Have a look around – seeing what other folks are eating and pointing at whatever you like the look of should do the trick. Similarly, the staff may invite you back into the kitchen (or the raw produce may be on display), in which case, pointing should once again get across your meaning and you can use the language section to explain how you would like it cooked.

Try to order a balance of foods for your group – one or two meat dishes, one fish and one or two vegetable or tofu dishes along with rice or noodles for a group of six to eight should suffice. This is the way Chinese food is designed to be eaten, offering contrasting flavors and textures, and it also means you're sure to find something you like.

If the above sounds like a culinary disaster waiting to happen, you could go on an organized group tour – if you're on a tour chances are you'll have a guide or tour leader familiar with both the language and the cuisine and who can pick the best regional specialties for you. Some companies even organize culinary tours (see Specialized Tours).

A few other points are worth noting:

Dishes will usually serve at least two when eaten with rice, although some places offer small and large plates.

If a meat dish doesn't specify, it will be pork, the staple meat of the country.

Rice tends to be served at the end of the meal (only to be used as a filler once the best dishes are consumed), unless you specify you want it at the same time as the meal itself.

The flavor enhancer, MSG (monosodium glutamate), is heavily used in much of the food – indeed sometimes you are given extra should you wish to put it in! MSG can cause headaches and more serious health problems and is best avoided, especially as the food is tasty enough already. Say "wo bu yao weijing,” (I don't want MSG) when ordering.

Drinks

It's important to make sure you consume enough fluids while on the road, especially during the summer months, and China offers a host of ways to quench your thirst, be it a refreshing cup of jasmine tea or a nice cold Tsingtao beer after a hard day sightseeing. You should never drink the tap water, but bottled mineral water is readily and inexpensively available throughout the country ($1-2 for a small bottle, or $3-4 at tourist sights), while hotel rooms and trains will always have a supply of safe boiled water. Soft drinks are also popular and you'll find all the familiar brands along with a few of China's own such as Jianlibao, which is worth a try. You'll also find fresh fruit juices, especially in the south.

Alcohol

Alcohol is widely available in China in many forms and most restaurants and cafés will serve beer and spirits, while big cities have plenty of bars, pubs and clubs. Beer (pijiu) is the most common alcoholic drink, thanks to the German annexation of Qingdao, which produces the country's finest beer, internationally exported Tsingtao (an old transliteration of the town name).

Almost every region has its own brewery and they're all fairly quaffable, all the more so due to the low price. At around 40 cents for a 640 ml bottle from a canteen or shop, beer is similarly priced to mineral water, although you'll pay far more in bars, especially for imported brands. This affordability and availability makes beer a common accompaniment to most meals, even if that's lunch served at 11 am.

While beer is most often drunk, liquor is fundamental to the banquet scene and shouts of ganbei (dry glass) echo around the room with alarming regularity. Drinking games are also popular and you'll see groups of men furiously shouting out numbers to try and guess the number of fingers their competitors will hold up. Baijiu, made from millet or sorghum, and mijiu, made from rice, are the principal liquor offerings, but in the city bars you'll find all manner of imported brands. Don't be surprised if you see a liquor bottle with a snake inside it; this is yet another alleged booster for male virility.

China also produces a few wines, the best-known being Dynasty and Great Wall, though if you want to drink wine you're better off splashing out on an imported European or New World bottle, available at upscale restaurants, supermarkets and department stores. This said, things could be set to change with a little help from France in the form of the Sino-French vineyard, which had its first harvest in 2003 (see Vino China).

Entertainment & Nightlife

The new China offers a host of entertainment possibilities, from the ultra-modern to those that hark back to bygone days. Traditionally, entertainment came in the form of opera (see Music) and acrobatics troupes who performed in teahouses and theaters, but today karaoke (KTV) and nightclubs are equally as popular!

Bars & Clubs

There are a host of different kinds of places to enjoy a drink, from outdoor stalls to trendy bars, Western-style pubs and not so Western-style clubs. For a slice of Chinese life along with your beverage you can't beat a beer at one of the ubiquitous outdoor eateries in the thick of busy streetlife; owners generally don't mind if you don't eat, but a bit of nourishment can help to temper the alcohol. And while karaoke (KTV) bars may be a long way from your notion of a quiet place for a drink, their popularity speaks volumes about the Chinese concept of having a good time and can make for a very different and fun evening out. More upscale places have private rooms where you can scream your lungs out from the comfort of a couch, but be aware that some of these places are merely fronts for brothels. There are even KTV booths on the street where the spectacle of a foreigner singing is certain to cause a stir, but, no matter how bad you are, you'll always get some applause!

In the cities there are neon-lit bars serving a range of imported beers and spirits, often found clustered together in bar districts such as San Litun Lu in Beijing. University areas also tend to attract bars and coffee shops, often with cheaper prices than their city center counterparts. Discos and nightclubs are generally found in the same locations, although the experience can be very different from the Western model! These places often have a cover charge (sometimes waived for foreigners) for which you may get a "free” drink. Once inside, you might find scantily clad women dancing on podiums to cheesy tunes and witness all manner of shows or party games! For those more serious about their music in the big cities there are also underground venues with the latest in dance music from around the globe and live music bars where you can see emerging bands (see Protest Music). Although there are recommended bars, pubs and clubs within this book, it's a fast-moving scene, which makes it worth checking out local web magazines such as www.thatsmags.com for the latest.

Cinema

Although China has plenty of movie theaters to while away rainy afternoons, outside of Hong Kong, most films are in Chinese, so, unless you're into martial arts and want to catch a kung fu flick, your options can be limited. Beijing and Shanghai do have a few theaters that show movies in English and they are also popping up in other cities such as Hangzhou. Tickets cost around $50.

Shopping

Shopping in China has come a long way from the shortages of yesteryear and is one of the chief hobbies (and status symbols) of the Middle Kingdom's newly moneyed population. This is reflected in the country's legion of shiny new shopping malls and bustling markets, and makes China a great shopping destination. Shopping is fun in China – from nightmarkets to exclusive boutiques, there's always something to catch your eye and it's a great way to come into contact with the locals. Just remember that whatever you buy has to find its way home somehow, so it's worth concentrating your shopping at the tail end of your trip, by which time you may also have a clearer idea of what you like and how much you should pay for it. If you're buying items over 100 years old, you'll need to get an export certificate, which can be arranged at Friendship Stores and note that it's illegal to take home anything that predates the death of Emperor Qianlong in 1795. Of course, you'll also have to take into account customs on return to your home country – see Customs & Immigration for more information. If you plan to buy items that require shipping home, check all of the costs incurred, as cheap prices are sometimes offset by unexpected payments to have the goods delivered to your door.

What's Offered

As the biggest manufacturer on the planet, China clearly has a lot to sell and you'll find everything from tacky Mao souvenirs, cheap electronics and the latest fashions to quality traditional items such as jade, paintings, pottery, silk and tea. Antique items can be found everywhere from streetmarkets to department stores, but forgery is also rife; if something is more than 100 years old, it should have an official red wax seal, so if you're paying a substantial amount and authenticity is important to you, make sure you get one of these. Something else to note is the widespread availability of imitation products – from designer label clothing to pirate CDs and DVDs. Although they're very cheap and the audiovisual copies are usually good quality, they are, of course, all illegal and may be seized at customs on your return. Finally, there are also a few shopping scams that can snare the unwary – see Warning – Scams for more.

Where to Shop

China has all kinds of retail outlets, from rickety one-man stalls to exclusive boutiques and emporiums and they're all worth visiting to get a flavor for the dichotomy that is modern China. See individual chapters for prime shopping spots.

Note that returning goods is not as simple as at home. Although department stores or chains might have some kind of policy, this is usually only valid at that particular store, for a limited period (usually a week). Even with an unopened (or damaged) item and a receipt, exchange is the best you can expect to get – refunds are almost unheard of.

Market stall

Markets

China abounds in markets and they make a great place to buy everything from vegetables to traditional art. In the cities you'll find markets for everyday goods and food, as well as those selling antiques, clothes and handicrafts. Nightmarkets are also popular and usually offer a range of stalls, along with places to eat. In the country, markets are often a social focal point, worth visiting for their snapshot of rural life, regardless of shopping. Here you'll probably see antique coin salesmen, fortune tellers, hairdressers and medical practitioners, as well as all manner of fruits, vegetables and livestock. Markets are always fair game for bargaining, particularly those at tourist sights.

Emporiums

If you've come on a tour you're almost certain to see at least one of these places. Emporiums are usually government-approved and tend to offer a variety of crafts, usually reflecting the specialty of the region. They are also often attached to "factories” where you can see the items in question being produced, although this is generally for show – the second a group leaves, the employees stop work! Groups are usually taken by a guide, who will receive a commission (as will the travel company) on anything you buy. But, if you walk into an emporium unaccompanied, you're unlikely to pay less. The advantages emporiums offer are the ease of a fixed price (though you can haggle a little) and the guarantee of quality. If you do plan to spend a significant amount, it's worth making sure the item is genuine – unless you're an expert this can be difficult, so it's easiest to buy from an approved store.

Shopping Malls & Department Stores

New shopping malls are springing up all the time in China's city centers and weekends see the urban elites out furiously flexing their credit cards. These giants hold designer label outlets, bookstores, electronics and music stores and they often have food courts and good supermarkets in their basements. Department stores can be a different story, especially in smaller towns, where they tend to be full of staff sitting behind glass cabinets waiting for the next victim who will have to endure reams of paperwork for the smallest of purchases. In spite of attempts to modernize, most branches of the Friendship Store remain similarly fusty, but it's China's most established department store (previously a foreigners' only emporium) and has quality items from all over the country, which can be a good (above average) price guide.

Everyday Needs

It used to be difficult to get everyday items such as toiletries and milk in China, but these days most products you'll need are easily available in the big cities. Foreign supermarkets such as Wal-Mart and Carrefour have established themselves and provide an interesting mix of imported and local products. For toiletries, head to Watson's, which can be found in Beijing, Xi'an, Shanghai, Hong Kong and Macau.

The Art of Bargaining

The Chinese are renowned for their tactical bargaining ability and are likely to mark up prices at the sight of a foreigner. Indeed, until recently, China had a dual pricing structure and the overcharging of foreigners was official policy. However, these days, while it will be difficult for you to get "local price,” you can certainly aim to knock at least a third off the asking price and often much more. For cheaper purchases, amounts are negligible when converted to dollars, euros or pounds, but for bigger items a little strategy can help you to get a fair price.

First, check out a few places (ideally including a fixed-price shop) before trying to bargain anywhere.

Second, don't start bargaining unless you definitely want the item in question.

Third, have a fixed price in your head that you won't go above and ideally a back-up similar item (the one you want often suddenly becomes "unique” and hence more expensive).

Fourth, if you're not getting near your price and the vendor stops going lower, try the slow walk out – half the time you'll be called back and get your price, or negotiations can recommence.

Finally, remember that while the difference between your price and the vendor's may be minimal, chances are this amount will mean more to the vendor than you and, if you see something you like, you might regret not buying for the sake of a few dollars! Conversely, don't feel guilty if the vendor acts hurt – no matter what they say they won't sell if they aren't making money.

Finger Counting

Illiteracy and the presence of numerous mutually unintelligible local dialects has led to the development of an easy system of finger counting in China. Memorize the hand signals below (from left to right, they represent the numbers one to 10) and you're all set for a hard day of bargaining at the markets.

Adventures

Conventionally, you may think of adventures as being outdoor or physical activities, but travel is all about exploration, and in this book the aim is to allow you to experience the manifold facets of this vast, diverse country. Thus, an adventure could be a hike or a bike ride, but it might also be learning to cook Chinese food or studying the ancient art of calligraphy. For each area covered you will find an "Adventures” section, sub-divided into the different forms of adventure for that region, such as "On Water,” "On Wheels” and "Cultural Adventures.” Accounts include contact details (where required), approximate costs and durations, what to expect and routes for bike rides and walks. Durations indicate the length of time walking or cycling and do not account for how long you spend at any sights en route. For physical, outdoor adventures like climbing or kayaking, be sure to check that your insurance policy is adequate. For cultural adventures you'll find background information in the Culture section of the book. If you're interested in one specific style of adventure and want your holiday to focus on that, then it might be worth booking a specialized tour (see Specialized Tours).

Eco-Travel

Tourism is set to be the world's biggest industry, but all too often it involves destruction of both the physical and social environment. When we seek out new and unexplored locales around the globe, we are, of course, irrevocably changing that place, all the more so by telling tales of unspoiled beauty on our return. In my work as a travel writer and tour leader I feel more at fault than most. The truth is that sooner or later all the "untouched” destinations will be gone, but what we can do is make the "touch” a light one. Eco-tourism is really about responsible tourism; minimizing negative impacts on the physical environment and indigenous cultures while maximizing the positive contributions travelers can make. China doesn't yet have much in the way of eco-tourism, but you can do your bit nonetheless. Below are a few pointers (most of which are purely common sense) that will help you do the right thing.

Try to use local, ecologically aware companies or individuals who care about the place in which they live. All too often the proceeds from tourism find their way to big travel agents who have little (if any) concern for eco-travel, so using locals will help to conserve the status quo, as well as supporting the regional economy.

Get involved in local projects, either with direct input during your trip or financially on your return (see Animal Protection Organizations, Charitable Organizations, Conservation Organizations, and the Putting Something Back sections in the destination chapters).

Help to preserve local crafts by buying direct from the craftsmen.

Never purchase any products made from endangered species, no matter what the vendor may tell you.

Never leave litter – aim to leave a place cleaner than you found it.

Recycle wherever possible.

Try to get around under your own steam – only use fuel-guzzling transport when necessary. Offset your carbon miles at www.climatecare.com.

Keep to marked trails when cycling or hiking.

Conserve water – don't leave the tap running and only get hotel linen washed when really needed.

Don't use soap or detergents in natural bodies of water.

The Top 25

Below is a list of my 25 favorite places and pastimes in the areas covered by this book. While by no means definitive, if you manage to see and do all that follows, you'll get a real flavor for what this giant land has to offer – contrast and diversity.

Beijing – Imagine China of old at the imperial trio of sights: the Forbidden City, the Temple of Heaven and the Summer Palace.  Eat Beijing duck in Beijing. Walk the Great Wall from Jinshanling to Simatai.

Chengde – Take a hike and a boat ride through the parkland of the imperial Mountain Resort.

Xi'an – Stare in awe at Qin Shi Huang's Terracotta Warriors. Cycle along the top of Xian's imposing ancient city walls.

The Three Gorges – Relish a boat trip up the spectacular Lesser Three Gorges or Shennong Stream

Shanghai – Witness the mindboggling contortions and agility of the Shanghai acrobats. Enjoy an evening stroll along the colonial Bund, with the bright lights of China's future shining from across the river in Pudong.

Suzhou – Visit one of the city's exquisitely styled traditional gardens.

Hangzhou – Take a bike trip out to the famous tea-growing village of Longjing. Enjoy a boat ride across the enduringly beautiful West Lake.

Huangshan – Ascend the majestic and mystical Yellow Mountains for scenery fresh from a scroll painting.

Guilin & Around – Enjoy a cruise along the Li River, which winds its way through the fairytale wonderland of Guangxi's mystical tower karst mountain scenery. Take an exhilarating bike ride between the forest of pinnacles to one of the region's bustling, colorful and sometimes disarming produce markets. Hike up to the breathtaking Dragon's Backbone rice terraces above Ping'an village.

Guangzhou – Tuck into the finest Cantonese dim sum in the world, in Canton. Enjoy the quiet life on the sleepy former colonial enclave of Shamian Island.

Hong Kong – Shop 'til you drop. Take the Star ferry across the harbor seemingly adrift amidst a sea of skyscrapers. Enjoy a day-trip to the beaches, hiking trails and fish restaurants of Lamma Island, only 30 minutes by boat from the bustling metropolis.

Macau – Forget you're in China for a while with an amble around the peninsula's stunning colonial Portuguese architecture. Pay your respects to the Goddess of the Sea at the A-Ma Temple.

Anywhere – Practice tai chi at sunrise in the park with hundreds of others. Soak up a traditional Chinese massage to soothe those aching traveler's limbs.

Suggested Itineraries

The following itineraries can all be completed in seven to 10 days; if you have more time you can combine any of them to make a longer trip.

The Imperial North

Arrive in Beijing and spend a few days soaking up the Imperial sights – the Forbidden City, Temple of Heaven, Summer Palaces and the Great Wall. Spend your evenings enjoying Beijing duck, opera and maybe a trip to the acrobats. If you have time, take a train up to Chengde and spend a couple of days enjoying the imperial retreat before returning to the capital and flying on to Xi'an. Allow a full day at the Terracotta Warriors and another day to explore the fascinating walled city. Make sure you enjoy a Dumpling Banquet, as well as dinner in the Muslim markets. Reflect on your trip in the overnight train back to Beijing.

Cruise the Three Gorges

Fly into one of the international hub airports (Beijing, Guangzhou, Hong Kong or Shanghai) and then on to Chongqing. Spend a day in this mountainous city before boarding your boat for the spectacular three-day trip to Yichang (or Wuhan). Stop off at the Ghost City of Fengdu and take a stunning side-trip up the Lesser Three Gorges or Shennong Stream along the way. Disembark and fly on to your choice of the international hubs, where you can spend time enjoying the city and surrounding attractions before flying home. Remember that, if you choose the same hub to fly into and out of, this should reduce your ticket price.

Shanghai, Silk & Tea

Fly to Shanghai and spend a few days in the vibrant heart of modern China. Promenade the Bund, shop on Nanjing Lu, visit Shanghai Museum, take a boat trip along the Huangpu and enjoy a drink at the top of the Jinmao Tower overlooking it all. In the evenings, see the famed acrobats, try some Shangainese cuisine and experience some of the best nightlife in China. Take a bus or a train to Suzhou for a day or two of silk shopping, strolling the narrow streets and canals and admiring the splendor of the city's famous traditional gardens, maybe taking a day-trip to one of the smaller water towns nearby. From Suzhou take an overnight boat journey along the Grand Canal (or a train) to Hangzhou for a couple of relaxing days exploring West Lake and the tea-growing hills that surround the city. Take the bus to Huangshan and ascend its stunning peaks, capped by lone pines and temples. If you have any extra time, you could visit the beautiful villages around Shexian and Yixian before returning to Shanghai for your flight home.

Shanghai skyline

Big City Lights & Rural Delights

Fly into Hong Kong and spend a few days discovering its diverse attractions – from shopping in bustling Kowloon to hiking along one of the islands' well-marked lush trails. Eat dim sum downtown and head up Victoria Peak for an after-dinner drink to remember. Take a boat or a train to Guangzhou and sample yet more Cantonese delights, along with some fine colonial architecture, maybe stopping off in modern Shenzhen for a peek at the new China. From Guangzhou, take a bus, train or flight to Guilin and spend a day visiting its mountainous and man-made attractions. The following morning take a boat along the Li River to Yangshuo, where you can spend the next few days hiking and cycling through the famed idyllic limestone scenery. Head back to Guilin for the return flight to Hong Kong. Take the ferry over to Macau and enjoy a day or two soaking up the splendid architecture, fine cuisine, small fishing villages, temples and beaches.

The Star Ferry in Hong Kong Harbor

Xi'an

Xi'an (Western Peace), population three million, has served as China's capital many times and at its peak it was described as the most prosperous city on the planet. These days, although the city is polluted, hot as an oven in summer and cold as a freezer in winter, it manages to remain one of China's most attractive and charismatic destinations, gracefully blending its historic architecture with newer developments. Although there's plenty to see within the city and the surrounding region, the main reason visitors flock to Xi'an is to stare out over the unforgettable Terracotta Warriors which were discovered in 1974 in the district of Lintong, 20 miles outside of the city.

While the warriors deservedly attract the limelight, the city itself is certainly worth a visit in its own right and within its stunning early Ming dynasty walls you'll find intact bell and drum towers, an ancient mosque and a fascinating Muslim quarter. Beyond the walls lies another host of sights, including impressive pagodas, one of the best museums in the country, the Shaanxi History Museum and, just a few miles to the east, Banpo is one of the best preserved examples of Yangshao Culture in China. Farther to the east, Huashan is one of China's five holy mountains – feasible as a day trip. Xi'an is in Shaanxi province, which is famous as one of the regions where pandas still survive in the wild, and you can arrange trips to a panda reserve in the Qingling Mountains at Zhouzhi, two hours away. Culinary travelers will also find a feast awaits in Xi'an – the city is famous for its dumplings and there are plenty of opportunities to sample (and even make) them, while the Muslim quarter has outdoor treats aplenty.

New mirrors old in Xi'an

History

Ancient Capital

Xi'an's strategic location between the loess plateau to the north and east, and the Qingling mountains to the south have seen the city and its environs serve as China's capital for 11 dynasties, starting with the Western Zhou dynasty (1122 to 771 BC), over 3,000 years ago. A few hundred years later, the founder of the Qin dynasty (221-206 BC), Qin Shi Huang, chose Xianyang, a little north of the modern city, as the capital of his short-lived empire, and was buried 20 miles east of the city at Lintong, guarded by his secret, but now infamous Terracotta Warriors. The succeeding Han (206 BC-220 AD) built a new capital not far from Xianyang, which they named Chang'an (Eternal Peace). The Han were one of China's most successful dynasties and under its emperors Chang'an prospered from its position at the start of the Silk Road across Central Asia.

When the Han fell, Chang'an was ransacked and China fell into turmoil for the next 400 years. But Xi'an remained the favorite imperial residence and the brief Sui dynasty (581-618 AD) based itself here, as did the successive and more successful Tang dynasty (618-907 AD), which really breathed life into the city. Under the Tang, Chang'an is said to have been the most populous and prosperous city in the world and the arts and religion thrived in the city. The Tang was a tolerant dynasty and, with the influx of influences coming along the Silk Road, Buddhism flourished while both Nestorianism and Islam gained a foothold and the Great Mosque was built. The tremendous wealth of the city also allowed for developments in the arts, notably the tri-color pottery still produced in the region today.

After the Tang

After the Tang, things went downhill for Xi'an and it never fully regained its former imperial splendor, although the city walls, bell and drum towers that you can see today were built during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). The city continued its decline, with occasional moments in the spotlight, such as the Empress Dowager Cixi's forced relocation here and the kidnapping of Chiang Kaishek by his own forces at nearby Huaqing Pool in order to coerce an alliance with the Communists in what became known as the Xi'an Incident (see Japanese Encroachment and Civil War).

In 1974 Xi'an received an unexpected blessing – the discovery of Qin Shi Huang's Terracotta Warriors 20 miles east of the city, near Lintong. The subsequent opening up of China to tourism has resulted in a new heyday for the city as one of China's premier tourist destinations. The combination of this new-found popularity and the city's industrial background has made Xi'an a wealthy city and today the streets are lined with shoppers busy flexing their financial muscle. However, this prosperity has led to an influx of rural migrants seeking work day-by-day, or begging on the streets, and industry has contributed to severe pollution. In spite of these problems, Xi'an remains an attractive and engaging city and its cosmopolitan blend of old and new continues to attract domestic and foreign tourists, while its manageable size and comparatively low cost of living have also made the city a popular place to study Chinese.

Getting Here & Away

By Air

Xi'an's airport is some 30 miles from the city and it takes a good hour's bus journey to get there. Airport buses leave from the Melody Hotel by the Bell Tower and the Jiefang Hotel by the train station. They cost $25. A taxi should cost around $150 to or from the airport. You can book air tickets through your hotel, hostel or the CAAC, west of the city wall on Laodang Nan Lu (tel.029-8879-0042).

Destinations, frequencies & durations

Beijing (18 daily; 1 hr 40 mins), Chongqing (5 daily; 1 hr 10 mins), Guangzhou (8 daily; 2 hrs 45 mins), Guilin (6 daily; 2 hrs), Hangzhou (5 daily; 1 hr 50 mins), Hong Kong (2 daily; 3 hrs), Shanghai (17 daily; 2 hrs), Shenzhen (6 daily; 2 hrs), Yichang (1 daily; 1 hr 10 mins).

By Rail

Xi'an is near a major rail branch divide, with one line heading east to Luoyang and Shanghai and another running north to Beijing. It's a popular stop and thus it's worth buying a ticket as soon as you arrive in order to get the train you want a few days later. The train station is conveniently located just outside of the northern city wall, but the roads on the way out here can get seriously gridlocked – some taxi drivers will drop you just inside the gate to save getting snarled up, which is fine if you don't have too much luggage! The ticket office is at the eastern end of the station and, although the lines appear long, they move fairly quickly, but hostels and some hotels can also book train tickets. To get into town, take a taxi, or bus #603 runs down Jiefang Lu, west to the Bell Tower and then south to Nanmen (South Gate).

Destinations, frequencies & durations

Beijing (5 daily; 12-15 hrs), Chongqing (1 daily; 14 hrs 30 mins), Guangzhou (1 daily; 26 hrs 20 mins), Guilin (1 daily; 28 hrs), Hangzhou (2 daily; 24 hrs),Shanghai (1 daily; 16 hrs 30 mins),Suzhou (1 daily; 15 hrs 30 mins),Yichang (1 daily; 15 hrs 45 mins).

By Road

Destinations within a few hours of Xi'an are feasible by bus, but anything longer is far more comfortable by plane or train. Buses run from Dongguangchang Station, just south of the train station to Banpo, Huashan and Lintong.

Getting Around

The main sights within the walled city are close enough to one another so walking is an easy way to get around, but if your legs are tired or you want to head outside of the walls, taxis are cheap. Roads can be gridlocked at rush-hour within the city walls, however.

By Bus

Since taxis are cheap, there is little point in taking public buses, which are invariably crowded, but a few useful numbers are included where appropriate, notably sightseeing buses that allow you the freedom to jump on and off throughout the day – route #5 heads to most of the major sights.

By Taxi

Xi'an's army of green taxis seems to overrun the streets and (except in rain or snow) it's fairly easy to hail one. At $6 minimum for the first two km (1.2 miles) and $1.4 per km (0.6 miles) after this, Xi'an's taxis are some of the cheapest in the country and it's worth making use of them.

By Bicycle

Bicycle is a great way to get around Xi'an's backstreets and along the city walls. Some hotels and all the hostels ($20 per day) have bikes for rent, and they are also available at the South Gate for rides around the wall. Wherever you rent, you'll need to put down a $100-200 deposit. For routes see Adventures On Wheels.

Orientation

Xi'an's ancient city walls encircle the old city which makes it easy to navigate. Many of the main sights are within the city walls and this central zone is bisected by four major roads. They run along the points of the compass to their respective gates in the wall and are named Bei, Dong, Nan and Xi Dajie (North, East, South and West Avenues). These roads meet just south of the center at the Bell Tower. To cross this busy intersection you need to use the subterranean tunnel, which has access points from each of the four roads. A little west of the Bell Tower, across a large public plaza, you'll see the Drum Tower, marking the entrance to the atmospheric Muslim quarter. With its tangle of alleys, this is one of the only parts of the city you're likely to get lost in, but it's great fun. Sooner or later you'll emerge somewhere you recognize, or where you can flag a cab.

Within the Muslim quarter, the Great Mosque is the main sight, and it's easy to find – there are signs, but you can just follow the souvenir stalls. In the southeast of the old city there is an artist's quarter, which is definitely worth a stroll. You'll also find the Beilin Stone Tablet Museum here.

Outside the city walls the sights are a little more spread out. Not too far south of the South Gate you'll find the Little Wild Goose Pagoda and, farther south still, the Shaanxi History Museum and, to the east, the Big Wild Goose Pagoda. Although there are a few hotels out this way, you're much better off staying within the city walls, which has options for most budgets. Likewise, the best eating and drinking are within the old city, particularly the lively Muslim markets and Defuxiang Bar Street.

Information Sources

There is a visitor center (tel.029-8552-0555) on the eastern side of the Big Wild Goose Pagoda, but the best source of information in Xi'an tends to be the hostels, which are used to foreigners wanting to do things their own way. Larger hotels might be able to provide good information, but they're of more use for booking tickets and tours than anything else. For online resources, www.toureasy.net/expat has information on hotels, restaurants, shopping, sightseeing and travel. You can buy maps marked in English outside the train station and from vendors in the central plaza. The best map is Xi'an Traffic and Tourist Map.

Communications

Telephone code: 029

Post Office: On the northeast corner of the Bell Tower intersection.

Internet Access: Most of the hostels have net cafés (around $8 per hour), but there are also plenty of places along Dong Dajie, including Hong Shu Lin at #424.

Bank of China: Halfway down Nan Dajie street on the eastern side and another branch with 24-hour ATMs at the eastern end of Dong Dajie on the north side of the street.

Public Security Bureau: 123, Xi Dajie (tel.029-8727-6241). Extending your visa usually takes two-three days.

Medical Services: Xi'an Number Four Hospital (tel.029-8403-5110) on Jiefang Lu.

Sightseeing

Xi'an is overflowing with sights, from the big drawcards like the Terracotta Warriors and the History Museum to the more abstract pleasures of a wander through the Muslim markets. Many lie within the old city walls, which are an attraction in themselves, but if you have enough time there are sights outside the walls, and still more outside the city, from ancient temples, to pandas and holy mountains.

Within the city it's easy enough to walk, cycle or take taxis between the sights, but to get out to the outlying attractions you might want to take a tourist bus or join a tour. They are run by all hotels, with cheaper (and sometimes more adventurous) options run by the hostels.

Historic Highlights

The Bell Tower (daily 8:30 am-9:30 pm, 8 am-6 pm Nov 1 to Mar 31; $20, or $30 for a combination Bell and Drum Tower ticket; tourist bus #5). Drum and bell towers around the country were used to mark out the time in days of old, but Xi'an's are the most prominent of any large city and the Bell Tower dominates downtown, stranded in the middle of a large traffic circle. The original tower was located west of its current location in the old city center, but the triple-eaved, 200-foot, two-story tower you see today was built in 1582 under the Ming dynasty and restored in 1792. Inside the tower you'll see intricate roof truss work, chime displays and, as you'd expect, a large bronze bell, although this is not the original. The balcony, which runs around the edge of the tower, offers views over the traffic across to the Drum Tower. To get to the Bell Tower you'll need to take the subterranean passageway that runs under Bei Dajie.

The Drum Tower

The Drum Tower (daily 8:30 am-9:30 pm, 8:30 am-6 pm Nov 1 to Mar 31; $20, or $30 for a combination Bell and Drum Tower ticket; tourist bus #5). The Drum Tower was built at the same time as the original Bell Tower and has remained in place ever since. The enormous drum was used to mark time, and in times of war, to warn citizens of impending attack. Both the Bell and Drum Towers are illuminated at night, and the Drum Tower offers attractive evening views over the plaza below and on to the Bell Tower. The tunnel through the center of the tower's base leads to the Muslim quarter. There are daily drum beatings at 9, 10 and 11 am and 2, 4 and 6 pm.

Ming city walls

The City Walls (daily 7 am-10:30 pm, 8 am-6 pm Nov 1 to Mar 31; $40). A wander or a bike ride along Xi'an's 40-foot-high city walls offers great vistas and, given that the walls are completely flat, it's a much easier venture than many of the other walls you might ascend in China! From the 500-year-old walls you can see the thronging new city, yet remain comfortably and quietly removed from it all. You can access the wall from any of the four major gates and can then walk, cycle or take an electric buggy ($50 for the complete circuit of one hour and 10 mins or $5 for any one of the 15 sections). You can see as much or as little of its nine-mile circumference as you want. Guides are available at $30 for half the wall, or $50 for the whole thing, but there's little for them to point out beyond a basic introduction. There are watchtowers on each of the four corners and major gates in the north, south, east and west – the East Gate is worth stopping off at to see the replicas of ancient military contraptions, including a giant catapult. See Adventures On Foot and On Wheels for the best parts to tackle.

Museums

Beilin Stone Tablets Museum (daily 8 am-6 pm; $45). While the stelae (stone tablets) are unintelligible to non-Chinese speakers, they are fascinating nonetheless, and the museum's setting, in a former Confucian Temple, is wonderfully tranquil. There are over 1,000 stelae spread through several courtyards and halls and you can have rubbings made of some of them. The tablets commemorate everything from the Five Confucian Virtues (see Confucianism) to historic events such as the arrival of a Nestorian priest in the eighth century, identifiable by the cross at its top, and some are supported by the tortoise-like creature, Bixi, renowned for his enduring strength. There's also a collection of small stone posts topped with carvings, which were used to tether animals, but were also symbolic of status. When you've seen enough stelae, the pavilions and contorted trees of the courtyards make for a pleasant place to just sit and contemplate.

Shaanxi History Museum (daily 9 am-6 pm; $50;buses #610 or tourist bus #5). A mile northwest of the Big Wild Goose Pagoda, the History Museum is one of the best in the country and its pavilion-style enclosure houses over 100,000 relics unearthed in Shaanxi. The museum is divided into three key sections – the permanent exhibition halls, an eastern sector that displays temporary exhibits from China and overseas and a themed section containing local Shaanxi cultural relics.

On the lower floor, the Zhou and Shang dynasty bronze vessels (see Bronzes) steal the show, but there are also weapons and ceramics here. The themed exhibitions include intricate displays of Tang gold, silver and costume and there's also the chance to see terracotta warriors up-close, a prelude for the thousands more lying in wait near Lintong. There's a lot to see here and if you want to take a moment to reflect (or relax) there's a coffee shop. There are audio headsets and English-speaking guides available. You have to leave your bag at the entrance.

Temples, Pagodas & Mosques

The Great Mosque (9 am-5 pm; $12). This exquisite blend of Arabic and Chinese architecture was originally constructed in 742 AD and remains a bastion of calm in the thronging streets of the Muslim quarter. To get here, enter the Muslim quarter through the Drum Tower and continue straight on for a couple of hundred yards, after which you'll see a turn-off to the left lined with souvenir stalls, which is signposted for the mosque. Turn left again after a few yards, past yet more stalls, and at the end you'll reach the entrance where you buy your ticket, which includes a pamphlet giving a basic introduction to the mosque. Pass through the entrance paifang, and into the grounds of the mosque. You'll soon see a pavilion in front of you, which was actually the original minaret from where the muezzin would perform the call to prayer. Straight ahead of you lies the 1,000-capacity prayer hall. You can look in but not enter the hall. Note the clock showing the five daily prayer times and the dragon images on the board hanging beneath the eaves – a long way from the Islamic notion that creatures shouldn't be artistically represented in mosques!

The Eight Immortals Temple (Baxian An), Changle Lane (9 am-6 pm; free; bus #300 from the Bell Tower). Northeast of the city walls, this Taoist temple is still an active place of worship, with monks and nuns in residence. The temple was first built during the Tang dynasty and expanded during the Qing, receiving regular visits from the Empress Dowager Cixi after she fled from Beijing following the Boxer Rebellion. The Eight Immortals (see Taoism) are fundamental to Taoist belief and they are depicted in a dedicated hall. There are stelae pertaining to the religion's five holy mountains, which include Huashan. On Wednesdays and Sundays there's a lively antiques market at the entrance to the temple (see Shopping).

The Little Wild Goose Pagoda, above, Youyi Xi Lu (daily 7 am-8 pm, 8 am-6 pm Nov 1 to Mar 31; $18, plus $10 to climb the pagoda; tourist bus #5). Less than a mile south of the South Gate, the Little Wild Goose Pagoda, originally constructed in the eighth century, is far less popular with tourists than its larger southern counterpart and this is an attraction in itself. Sitting in pretty temple grounds, the honey-colored 130-foot pagoda gracefully rises up from the bamboo that surrounds it and is very photogenic. The pagoda was originally built to store Buddhist scriptures brought from India which were translated by the famed monk Yi Jing. The pagoda was originally 15 stories high but was damaged by an earthquake, which lopped off two levels, leaving a jagged top to the otherwise streamlined tower.

You can climb the pagoda ($10), but the staircase is very narrow and the views from the top are pleasant, but not breathtaking. There's also a temple here, Jianfu Si, which holds a 10-ton bell dating from the end of the 12th century – its toll can allegedly send out messages to loved ones! In the courtyards you'll find pretty flowerbeds and a collection of ancient carved stone pillars that were once used to tether animals. To the south there's a pond crossed by a few arched bridges, but this part of the grounds was undergoing renovation at the time of writing.

The Big Wild Goose Pagoda, Xiaozhaidong Lu (daily 9 am-9:30 pm, Nov 1 to Mar 31 9 am-5 pm; $25; bus #606 or tourist bus #5). Two miles southeast of the city center the Big Wild Goose Pagoda, shown above, is much more striking than the Little Wild Goose Pagoda and so gets hordes of visitors. The pagoda's boxy bulk sits in beautiful temple grounds and was originally built in 648 as a fire-proof repository for sacred scriptures translated by the monk Xuanzang. You can ascend the seven-story, 197-foot pagoda for views over the grounds and square. Inside you'll find inscriptions made by successful imperial exam candidates who came here in the belief that it would lead to a soaring career. In the large square to the north of the pagoda enclosure you'll find a visitors center, restaurants and, on the flanks, the new Shaanxi Folk Customs Gardens (west) and the Shaanxi Opera Theme Park (east). They have an interesting collection of local arts, including papercutting and pottery, although it's all very Tang Paradise (see below). If you come in the evenings there are sometimes impressive fountain and lights displays in the square.

Other Sights

Tang Paradise (daily 9 am-10 pm; $50; bus #21, #24 & #610). This mammoth new tourist construction south of the Big Wild Goose Pagoda offers a glimpse of the splendor of imperial Tang Chang'an, albeit in Disney fashion. The site has become a big attraction with visiting Chinese but, given the proximity of genuine antiquity in Xi'an, it's only worth a visit after you've seen the major historic sights. The collection of Tang-style buildings is centered around the vast man-made Qujiang Lake and can make for a fun visit, especially with kids. But, despite the incredible attention to detail, it's just a bit too kitsch to take seriously. There's a nightly cultural show here (see Galleries, Shows & Theaters).

Around Xi'an

Although there are a feast of sights around Xi'an, the Terracotta Warriors stand out. Terracotta Warriors tours (see below) often take in other sights such as the Banpo or Lintong Museums and Huaqing Pools, or you can hire a taxi for the day and take your pick – you can pick up unofficial taxis outside the Melody Hotel for around $150 for the day.

Banpo Museum

(Open daily 8:30 am-5 pm; $30; bus #11, #15 or #517). Five miles east of Xi'an, the Banpo Museum houses the excavated remnants of a Neolithic village and is the best preserved example of Yangshao culture (5000-3000 BC) in the country. The site was unearthed in 1953, and was a keystone in understanding more about Yangshao society. It was a primitive subsistence culture and is thought to have been matrilineal, given the grander nature of the women's tombs here.

The site was devastated by severe floods a couple of years ago and has only recently reopened. The excavation site itself is less impressive than its history and leaves a lot to the imagination, but it is possible to walk over it on raised walkways from where you can see the former mud and straw dwellings surrounded by animal pens. To the north lies the burial ground and there are skeletons and funerary objects on display. From here you move into the museum, which houses ceramics and other items unearthed here, including fish-hooks and stone tools. The Culture Village is a reconstruction of the settlement and, while tacky, it helps to give a more tangible idea of what the village might have looked like. Banpo is often visited on day-trips out to the Terracotta Warriors, but if you want to come here independently you can take a taxi or one of the buses listed above.

Huaqing Pool

(Open daily 8 am-5 pm; $70; bus #306 or tourist bus #5). Twenty miles east of Xi'an, these mineral-laden 123°F hot springs have been attracting visitors for millennia, but until recently they were the preserve of emperors. Qin Shi Huang, and the Han and Tang emperors all numbered among the springs' patrons but, while some Tang dynasty buildings remain, the springs are best visited for their thermal pleasures rather than their architecture, although the pools can get very busy. It was here that Chiang Kaishek was arrested by his own troops and coerced into an alliance with the Communists in an event that became known as the Xi'an Incident (see Japanese Encroachment & Civil War). A short walk from the Huaqing Pool, the Lintong Museum (daily 8:30 am-6 pm; $30) is worth a brief visit for its collection of Han and Tang dynasty funerary objects. Both sites are often included in Terracotta Warrior day trips.

Qin Shi Huang's Tomb

(Open daily 8 am-5 pm; $25). A little over a mile to the west of the warriors, the tomb that they were built to guard appears as little more than a mound, but reputedly holds a lethal array of booby-traps designed to further protect the megalomaniac emperor and his underground afterlife city, which was complete with rivers of mercury. According to the writings of the famed Han dynasty historian, Sima Qian, the Qin emperor was interred with a cohort of concubines and servants who were buried alive!

The Terracotta Warriors

(Open daily 8 am-6 pm; $90 or $65 from Nov 31 to Mar 1; bus #306 or tourist bus #5). The Terracotta Warriors are one of China's (and indeed the world's) premier historic sights and are worth a trip to Xi'an, even if you choose to see nothing else. From the moment you lay eyes on them it's impossible not to be spellbound by the sheer scale of the army, which is fascinatingly offset by the intricate and unique detail of each soldier.

Some Background History

Qin Shi Huang founded the Qin dynasty (221-206 BC) and united China. Although his rule was short and brutal, the grand projects which he embarked upon have ensured that his name will never be forgotten. Under Qin Shi Huang, the first version of the Great Wall was built and currency and writing were standardized, which alone put his name in the Chinese history books. It was common knowledge that the first emperor was interred near Lintong, but nothing was known of his guardian army until the 20th century. In 1974 a group of farmers were digging a wellwhen they unearthed a terracotta shard that appeared to be part of a statue. They duly reported their find and excavations were carried out, which revealed a pit of over a thousand terracotta soldiers. When they were first uncovered, many of the warriors still had remnants of their original painted coloring, but unfortunately the strong Shaanxi sun soon destroyed this. Further excavations uncovered another two pits and archeologists then began the painstaking process of putting the pieces together.

Legends & Facts

It is still unclear exactly why Qin Shi Huang ordered the construction of the Terracotta Warriors, but theories abound, among the most popular of which are that they were to guard his tomb in the afterworld, or that the soldiers were to protect him from the invading armies of the east. There are also rumored to be more pits to the north, west and south of Qin Shi Huang's tomb, but preliminary excavations have thus far revealed nothing of the sort. A similar range of tales circulate about the design of the warriors – some guides will tell you that the individual faces were modeled on real members of Qin Shi Huang's army, while others believe that the faces represent the workers who made them. What is more certain is the way they were made – kiln-baked in separate hollow sections (apart from the legs, which are solid) to avoid cracking and then put together and brightly painted. Some of the soldiers are over six-feet tall and there is yet more speculation about why they are so tall – some attribute their height to the belief that Qin Shi Huang would have only chosen the strongest soldiers for his imperial guard, while others feel that their stature was to intimidate spirits in the afterworld. The soldiers' clothing indicates their rank; some of them were originally clothed in leather armor and held metal weapons.

Visiting the Site

Hotels run tours to the warriors and nearby sites from around US$50, while hostels operate cheaper versions of the same from as little as $160 with a minimum of five people ($230 if there are only two of you, although this is unlikely in the summer as there is plenty of demand). The price includes round-trip transport, lunch and entrance fees. If you want to make your own way out to the warriors, a round-trip taxi should cost $150, including waiting time. If you take a tour, check how long you'll spend at the site (a minimum of two hours is recommended) and what time you'll arrive. It's definitely worth getting here early to avoid the crowds; if you're the first one here you'll get a blissful few minutes to savor the splendor before the hordes come. However you arrive, from the new car park it's a 10- to 15-minute walk to the site, or you can take an electric buggy for $15.

Pit One

On entering through the ticket gates, the first place to head is Pit Number One, which is straight ahead of you. In spite of subsequent excavations, Pit Number One remains the most impressive and on a sunny day the finely detailed faces of the soldiers catch the light through the opaque roof. Even from above you can clearly make out the differences in stature, clothing, headdress and facial expression. There are over a thousand figures here arranged in battle formation and you can walk around the edge of the enclosure to get a little closer to them. The lines of warriors are divided by earthen walls, which originally supported a wooden beamed roof. In the center there is a collection of terracotta horses, which originally had chariots behind them, and to the rear of the pit many of the figures lie shattered on the ground. In spite of signs forbidding photography, everybody takes photographs in this pit – just make sure not to use your flash.

Pits Two & Three

Pit Two was discovered in 1976 and opened to the public in 1994. Although only a small portion of the pit has been excavated, the warriors unearthed here display a much greater variety of postures than in Pit One and there are four particularly fine examples housed in glass cabinets – an archer, a cavalryman, an officer and an overbearing general who is six feet six inches tall! Pit Three is the smallest of the sites and only holds 68 warriors, but their elaborate clothing is thought to indicate higher rank – it seems as if this was the command center for the terracotta army!

Other Points of Interest

There's a small museum here which is definitely worth a visit, principally for the two ornate bronze chariots found near Qin Shi Huang's tomb. The fine workmanship of both chariots is replete with symbolism and the design incorporates elements which represent the belief that the earth was square and heaven was round. To the left of Pit One there's a movie theater that screens a show detailing the history of the warriors and their creation – ask when the next English performance will be. In the hall outside the theater there's a gift shop where you might see one of the farmers who first found the warriors busily autographing books.

Pandas

(Open 8 am-5 pm; $20). Two hours southwest of Xi'an, the Panda Reserve at Zhouzhi in the Qingling Mountains is a good place to see the animals, along with golden monkeys, red pandas, black bears and leopards. There are currently eight pandas at the site, including one baby. Hostels run tours that cost $160 as long as you have a minimum of five people, or you can hire a taxi for the round-trip, which should cost $400-500. Try to get to the reserve for the 10:30 am or 4 pm feeding times when you'll see the pandas tucking into apples and milk along with the bamboo. For more about pandas and the other animals listed, see Fauna. If you're interested in getting more involved with promoting panda conservation, i-to-i organizes volunteer programs at the center (which you must pay for) – check out www.i-to-i.com.

Huashan

(Open 8:30 am-6 pm; $100; tourist bus #6). Seventy-five miles east of Xi'an, Huashan is the westernmost of China's five holy Taoist mountains and is well worth a trip. The mist-shrouded mountain has long been a Taoist hermits' retreat and there are several temples and a cave dedicated to Laozi (see Taoism), the religion's semi-mythical founder. Huashan is a couple of hours drive from Xi'an, which makes staying overnight preferable if you wish to climb, rather than take the cable car (daily 9 am-4 pm; $60 one-way or $110 round-trip), up the mountain.

Practicalities

Hostels run day-trips to the mountain for $280, which includes transport, entrance fees, cable car and meals, but these tend to be rushed and it's better to hire your own taxi ($700 round-trip including waiting) and leave early, or take the bus and stay overnight. Buses leave from Dongguangchang station and take two hours to get to the mountain. There are plenty of hotels on Yuquan Jie in town, some of which have dorms, and there are also places to stay on the mountain itself. Many of these are basic affairs where you'll need a sleeping bag, but there are better options on the North Peak and the East Peak.

Making the Climb

The mountain is notoriously steep and there are some precipitous drops but, if you choose to climb rather than take the cable car to the 5,295-foot North Peak, your efforts will be rewarded with fine views (weather permitting), a tremendous sense of achievement and aching legs. The nine-mile climb takes around four hours and starts easily enough, but the route becomes increasingly steep and narrow as you ascend. Once at North Peak you can travel on to the highest point of the mountain, South Peak,at 7085 feet. You can continue on around the remainder of the mountain's five peaks, although it takes a good six to eight hours to complete the circuit, so you might want to stay on the mountain (see Practicalities, above).

Galleries, Shows & Theaters

Xi'an's cultural scene is more limited than the big cities but there are a few performances (designed for tourists) worth checking out. The 5 pm "Dream Back to the Great Tang Dynasty” (tel.029-8551-1888; $150) at Tang Paradise is the most elaborate, while the 8:30 pm Tang Dynasty Show at 75 Chang'an Lu ($410 with dinner, $200 without; tel.029-8782-2222) lasts an hour and is accompanied by a classical Chinese orchestra.

Afternoon Delight:

In the late afternoon and early evening it's worth looking out for locals giving performances of opera around the city walls, often accompanied by drums and wind and

string instruments.

For Families

Xi'an is a city brimming with historical sights but these might not always appeal to the entire family. The Ming city walls make a good compromise which combines a bit of history with some cycling or walking, and Tang Paradise is another fun option. In the north of the city, Revolution Park can offer some playtime, and in the evenings the central plaza is full of families flying kites (you can buy them there). Another trip that should appeal to the kids is out Zhouzhi to see the pandas and other wildlife.

Health & Relaxation

There are massage parlors all over the city – the Han Tang Hostel offers Tibetan and tuina massage(see Traditional Chinese Medicine). For more of a health cleanse you could try Le Spa (tel.029-8792-8888; daily 10 am-4 am) in the east wing of the Sofitel, which offers massage and spa treatments, but be warned they don't come cheap. If you want to soak away your stress you could head out to Huaqing Hot Springs and bathe in the mineral springs, but don't go expecting luxury.

Shopping

Xi'an is a great place for shopping, new or old. While ever more new shopping malls spring up, markets provide for those who want to sightsee as they shop.

Markets

The Muslim markets, as they are known, run north along Beiyuanmen from the Drum Tower and along parallel Huajie Xiang, which leads to the Great Mosque. They incorporate everything from foods (see Where to Eat) to souvenirs. This is a great place to pick up all the China souvenirs you want – from singing Mao lighters to kids' toys, as well as "antique” items, although it can be difficult to determine authenticity. You'll also see replica terracotta warriors here but, while they're cheap, the quality is suspect (see Soldier Shopping).

The Muslim Markets

Xi'an has a long artistic history and this is evident in the string of shops and stalls that run east along Shuyuanmen from the South Gate. Here you'll find lots of calligraphy, scroll paintings and art equipment, including enormous paint-brushes; the market is a great place for a wander even if you're not going to buy, and, since it's on the way to the Beilin Stone Tablets Museum you can combine the two in a trip.

Likewise if you're going to visit the Eight Immortals Temple, it's worth heading there on a Wednesday or Sunday to take in the antiques market at its entrance. You'll find all manner of goods, from genuine antiques to real bric-a-brac and the vendors themselves are often as interesting as the objects for sale. It's always difficult to ascertain authenticity, but there are still some great souvenirs. Qing dynasty opium pipes, busts of Chairman Mao, Taoist alchemy treatises, rusty old weapons, statues of Buddha and antique coins all sit incongruously next to one another.

Shopping Streets & Malls

Traffic in Xi'an

A short stroll down frenetic Dong Dajie on a summer's evening is all you need to convince you that consumerism has arrived in China – everyone under 30 seems to be out picking out the latest bargains from the plethora of clothing and sports outlets. One of the first and still the best mall in Xi'an is the Century Ginwa Plaza (daily 9:30 am-9 pm) beneath the public square between the Bell and Drum Towers. Access is next to Starbucks on the northwestern corner of the Bell Tower intersection. Inside you'll find clothing stores, sportswear, electronics and a supermarket, but be warned that imported items cost as much, if not more, than at home. There's also a Kenny Rogers Roasters and a DeliFrance there in case you get hungry. For designer labels, the Zhongda International Shopping Center on the western side of Nan Dajie has the likes of Luis Vuitton and Prada, and the Chang'an International Center includes a Gucci store.

Everyday Needs

The supermarket in the Century Ginwa Plaza (see above) should provide for most of your everyday needs, but for a cheaper supermarket try Nan Dajie. For toiletries there are plenty of Watson's outlets, including one next to the Han Tang Hostel on Xi Dajie.

Adventures

Xi'an is so overloaded with sights that you may find little time for anything beyond a bike ride or walk around the city walls, but you could also try your hand at dumpling making, or join in with some tai chi or kiteflying around the central plaza above the Century Ginwa shopping mall.

On Foot

Around the City Walls

You can walk around the flat city walls in about three hours, but it can get very hot in Xi'an, so many people prefer to do just a section of the walk. Don't worry about getting stranded. If you get tired you can either descend when you come to the next gate and take a taxi to your hotel, or hop on one of the electric buggies that circuit the wall. Late afternoon is a good time to start the walk as the heat of the day starts to fade and the walls are bathed in the warm glow of the setting sun–you may see local musicians performing below you as you make your way round

On Wheels

Around the City Walls

Cycling makes for a speedier way of seeing the wall than walking and the whole circuit can be completed in around an hour. You can rent bikes from the South Gate of the wall – rental costs $20 (plus a $200 deposit) for 100 minutes or $40 for a tandem.

Cultural Adventures

The Art of Making the Perfect Dumpling

Xi'an has a long culinary history and is particularly famous for its dumplings. There are countless excellent dumpling restaurants around town (see Where to Eat), but to learn how to make them head to the Shuyuan Hostel (see Where to Stay), which has dumpling making sessions at 7-9:30 pm every Friday. You'll be shown how to do it before trying your own, which will likely look OK until they get to the pan when they'll probably fall apart. If it's any consolation, years of training are required to become a qualified dumpling chef and, while yours may not look great, they should still taste good, as long as you can find all of the pieces!

Where to Stay

Xi'an has embraced its modern tourist status with open arms and there are plenty of good places to stay, including an ever-increasing number of hostels, although options at the top end are mostly found outside the city walls.

Bell and Drum, 1 She Hui Lu (tel.029-029-8727-5018; BDTHTL@gmail.com). This is a good mid-range choice, located right in the heart of the city between the Bell and Drum towers. Rooms are comfortable and quiet. Staff are friendly and helpful. $$$

Bell Tower, 110 Nan Dajie (tel.029-8760-0000). The Bell Tower's excellent location and comfortable (but small) rooms make it popular with tour groups. @ $$$

Hyatt Regency, 158 Dong Dajie (tel.029-8769-1234, www.xian.regency.hyatt.com). From the outside the Hyatt (shown above) looks its age but, inside, the lobby is elegantly modern, as are the rooms, some of which have opaque Japanese paper screens in front of the windows to hide the poor views. Discounts of up to 50% are common. FC/@/DA $$$$$

Han Tang Hostel, Xi Dajie (tel.029-8728-7772, www.hostelxian.com; buses #201, #205 & #611 from the train station). It's less atmospheric than the Shuyuan (see below), but the Han Tang's better facilities, good location and clean, bright and quiet rooms make it a popular place with budget travelers, although mosquitoes can be a problem. You'll find the usual array of hostel offerings, including laundry, Internet café, and travel and tour booking facilities, as well as the opportunity to learn how to make dumplings (see Adventures, above) and a small, but pleasant roof terrace. Dorms are $50. $$

May First, 351 Dong Dajie (tel.029-8768-1098, www.may-first.com). Located on the busy shopping street of Dong Dajie, May First is reached by walking through the restaurant of the same name (see below). It has a presentable selection of rooms, although the cheapest ones don't have windows. $$

Qixian Hostel, 1 Beixin Jie (tel.029-8744-4087; gaoming55514@yahoo.com.cn; bus #610 from the train station). Of the many hostels that have sprung up around the city, Qixian is by far the most atmospheric, although it's a little farther from the center than some of the others. The hostel is housed in a historic building next to the Eighth Army Museum and the simple rooms and dorms are set around courtyards linked by moon gates. Dorm beds are $25 or $50 with a bathroom inside the room. There's also a cozy café with Internet access and tables in the courtyard outside. $

Shuyuan Hostel, 50 feet west of the South Gate (tel.029-8728-7720; shuyuanhostel@yahoo.com.cn; bus #608 from the train station). Housed in an attractive building just inside the city wall by the South Gate, Shuyuan's recently renovated rooms are clean, simple, feature modern bathrooms, and are set around a couple of courtyards. There's also an Internet café/bar  that hosts dumpling-making sessions and serves the usual blend of basic Chinese dishes and Western traveler fare at modest prices. The small, basic dorms are $50/$30 for a/c or non a/c respectively. If you take a room go for one on the upper level; they are brighter. $$

Sofitel, 319 Dongxin Jie (tel.029-8792-8888, www.sofitel.com). The recently opened collection of Accor hotels in Renmin Square are the city's most prestigious and the Sofitel, above, is the best of the group. The hotel is divided into east and west wings, both of which have spacious rooms styled in a comfortable and hip fashion, although the service isn't qyite up to scratch as yet. The Grand Mercure ($$$$$), Mercure ($$$$), which both have use of the Sofitel's fitness center and pool, and the budget People's Hotel ($$$) are all here and can be booked through the same telephone number. But given the Sofitel's frequent discounts it's worth paying a little more to stay there. The complex also holds has one of the most exclusive restaurants in Xi'an, Le Chinois (see below). The only downside to the hotels is their location, which is a little far from the center. FC/SW/@

Shaanxi Wenyuan, 45 Xi Dajie (tel.029-8310-3000). A little west of the Bell and Drum Hotel, the Wenyuan is a new place, with comfortable, well-appointed rooms and helpful staff. @ $$-$$$

Where to Eat

Xi'an is renowned for its jiaozi (dumplings) and these are a must, whether you make your own (see Adventures), go to a simple canteen or enjoy a full-blown banquet – for the latter try Defachang. Or, if you want to accompany your feast with some entertainment, the Tang Dynasty Show $$$$$ should fit. The Muslim markets on Beiyuanmen offer a host of eating options, from tasty beef ($0.5 each) and lamb skewers ($1 each) to flatbreads, tasty desserts and sweets. If you need some Western food, there are a few McDonalds, KFCs and Pizza Huts, along with the city's first Starbucks and a number of backpacker cafés, which are mostly in the hostels.

Defachang, next to the Bell and Drum Hotel (tel.029-8721-4060; daily 9:30 am-9:30 pm). This specialty restaurant serves more kinds of dumplings than you ever imagined possible. The canteen downstairs has simple but tasty jiaozi for as little as $6 per plate of 15 but, for more choice and style, head upstairs to the second floor where banquet options start at $80 per person. That buys you an assortment of 16 different kinds of dumpling. If you've come in a group you might want to think about the private rooms on the third floor. $-$$$$$

See Travel & Living Information, Food & Drink, for an explanation of restaurant price codes.

Hui Fang, Beiyuan Lu (daily 11 am-late). In the heart of the Muslim markets, this place serves the standard skewer and flatbread fare and has an English menu to boot.

Le Chinois, Sofitel Hotel, 319 Dongxin Jie (tel.029-8792-8888 ext. 4688; daily 10 am-2 pm & 5-9:30 pm). This refined restaurant is one of the best in the city, specializing in delicious Cantonese dishes, but they also serve a good assortment of other regional delicacies. $$$$

May First, 351 Dong Dajie (daily 7:30 am-10 pm). May First is a busy canteen-style restaurant outside the hotel of the same name. It offers a host of local specialties including baozi and meat skewers. $-$$

Shaanxi Local Fast Food Restaurant, 298 Dong Dajie (daily 11 am-9 pm). This clean but characterless canteen has inexpensive local specialty dishes served in its daily buffet. $

Tong Sheng Xiang, next to the Bell and Drum Hotel (daily 8 am-10 pm), Opposite Defachang, this Muslim restaurant serves delicious baked breads, along with lamb and beef in comfortable surroundings. $$-$$$

Nightlife

While nowhere near as diverse as the big cities of Beijing and Shanghai, Xi'an's blend of students and tourists makes for a fun night scene and there are plenty of bars, clubs and pubs where you can drink and dance to your heart's content. Defuxiang Bar Street has a number of bars – just take a stroll and see which one takes your fancy. Tribe Bar is cozily fitted out, while farther south the Showtime Bar fits its name and is a place to be seen. For a less pretentious but more fun drink, most of the restaurants and canteens in the Muslim markets are happy to serve you just beer (chances are you'll get hungry and order some food later anyway). If they let you put your seats outside, you'll have a fine vantage point from which to watch the crowds milling about. Xi'an also has a few thronging nightclubs – 1+1 on Dong Dajie is a popular spot.

The Three Gorges

The Yangzi is China's greatest river and the Three Gorges are one of its most stunning stretches, steeped in myth and legend, and, until recently, notoriously dangerous and difficult to navigate. All this is set to change with the completion of the Three Gorges Dam, the largest in the world, which it is hoped will dramatically reduce the catastrophic effect of flooding, as well as generate an enormous amount of electricity. The project is due for completion in 2009 and, despite staunch opposition regarding its environmental and social consequences and setbacks in its construction, it looks as if it will, if anything, be finished ahead of schedule. As a result of the predicted impact of the dam, the race to see the Three Gorges is on and a cruise along the Yangzi is one of the country's premier attractions. The Three Gorges are best (and most easily) appreciated heading downstream and thus are dealt with in this order, starting with Chongqing, then the cruise along the Yangzi, and finally Yichang, where you can take a plane or train to your next destination.

History

As the country's primary waterway, the Yangzi basin has been settled for a long time and remains date the first human habitation along the Yangzi to over 20,000 year ago. Many of the battles of the fractious Three Kingdoms Period (220-581 AD) were fought out on this land and are recollected in the 14th-century work, Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Heroes of this time, such as Liu Bei, are remembered by temples along the Yangzi which can still be visited to this day.

Despite its treacherous waters, the Yangzi has long played a fundamental role in China's internal transport network. While road, rail and air have superseded the river as primary passenger routes, the Yangzi remains important for shipping freight, and the Three Gorges are one of the country's biggest tourist earners.

The completion of the Three Gorges Dam will change the river and life along it forever but, while industry and transport are certain to benefit, millions of people have been displaced, environmental disasters loom and the dam's effectiveness as a flood prevention measure for the whole region is in question. Furthermore, many of the unexcavated treasures of the river are certain to be lost forever and it remains to be seen whether the Three Gorges will maintain their allure when they become part of China's largest lake in 2009.

Chongqing

Chongqing is a big, bustling and mountainous city of 31 million, located at the confluence of the Yangzi and Jialing rivers. It serves as the industrial powerhouse of inland China and is renowned as one of China's "Three Furnaces" (the others are Wuhan and Nanjing, both on the Yangzi) – because of its stifling summer heat and humidity. While the city isn't without character, this climatic reputation is well-deserved, and most visitors spend just a few hours here before departing downstream on a cruise boat through the Three Gorges. However, if you do end up spending more time here, you will find the streets lined with fiery hotpot restaurants and steep, narrow alleys alive with local flavor. There are also a few historic sights and points of interest in and around the city, most notably the new Three Gorges Museum and the Luohan Temple, as well as the exquisite Buddhist cave carvings two hours away at Dazu.

History

Chongqing's location on the life-giving and -taking Yangzi has seen it settled since the Paleolithic era, and densely populated villages existed in Neolithic times, but it first rose to prominence with Ba culture, around 1000 BC. The city was given its current name, Chongqing (which means “Double Celebration"), by the emperor Zhao Jiezhong and remained a stronghold against Mongol rule well after they had taken control of the rest of the country. In more recent times Chongqing was ceded as a treaty port to the British and Japanese in the 19th century and was used as the headquarters of the KMT after they were ousted from Nanjing by the invading Japanese. During World War II Chongqing played a crucial role as the drop zone for the resupply of Allied-Nationalist forces against the Japanese. US General Stilwell was a key figure in the joint effort until the alliance with the Nationalists failed in 1944, but much of the city was heavily bombarded by the Japanese and little of Chongqing's long history remains intact.

Chongqing's key location on this most significant of waterways has continued to serve it well and it soon developed into a center for heavy industry, which has left the city polluted, but prosperous. More recently Chongqing has emerged as a manufacturing hub for China's burgeoning automobile industry – Ford has a factory here, in partnership with local producer Chang'an and Chongqing recently produced China's first armored car.

Shopping on the modern streets around the Victory Monument, Jiefangbei, you can feel the wealth, but, as ever, this goes hand in hand with poverty and you'll see plenty of people struggling to stay above the breadline. The city's meteoric growth has left it with several million residents in the Yuzhong peninsula alone, and over 30 million in the municipal area! This gargantuan population and the city's strategic importance led to Chongqing's separation from its parent province, Szechuan, in 1997, and it was designated as a “specially administered municipality," controlled directly by the central government. Industry and tourism combine to give Chongqing its fair share of foreign visitors and the city is being spruced up little by little but, with the enticing vistas of the Three Gorges waiting just along the river, few visitors stay long. If you are willing to explore Chongqing a little you'll find a gritty but captivating slice of Chinese city life.

Getting Here & Away

As one of China's principal industrial cities, Chongqing is served by planes, trains and buses from around the country, but these can get very booked up in the peak season. It's worth buying a ticket from the travel agent you book your cruise with or, if this isn't possible, getting one as soon as you arrive.

By Air

The airport lies 20 miles out of the city, from where there are shuttle buses ($15) to the airline offices on Zhongshan San Lu.

Destinations, frequencies & durations

Beijing (13 daily, 2 hrs 20 mins), Guangzhou (11 daily, 2 hrs), Guilin (2 daily, 1 hr),  (3 daily, 2 hrs 10 mins), Hong Kong (2 daily, 2 hrs), Shanghai (14 daily, 2 hrs 30 mins), Shenzhen (10 daily, 1 hr 40 mins), Xi'an (5 daily, 1 hr 10 mins), Yichang (1 daily, 50 mins).

By Rail & Road

The train station lies on the western end of the peninsula, and the main intercity Caiyuan Bus Station is next door, although the train is a better bet for most destinations – both are connected to the city center at Jiefangbei by taxi or buses #122 and #130, the latter also runs to Chaotianmen.

Rail destinations, frequencies & durations

Beijing (2 daily, 24 hrs 51 min-33 hrs 12 mins), Guangzhou (5 daily, 30-38 hrs), Hangzhou (3 daily, 39-43 hrs), Shanghai (1 daily, 42 hrs 5 mins), Xi'an (4 daily, 13-19 hrs).

Getting Around

Chongqing's mountainous nature can make orienting yourself difficult, while its oven-like summer heat rules out walking for other than the shortest distances. Fortunately, speedy and cheap taxis are on hand ($5 for the first 1.2 miles and $1.1 for each 0.6 mile after that), although empty cabs can be elusive during rush hour, in which case motorcycle taxis are an exciting option, but you'll have to bargain (within the peninsula should be no more than $5). Buses also run around the peninsula, but routes are difficult to decipher so you're better off sticking to cabs.

Chongqing's metro has finally been given the green light for construction, but won't be complete for some years to come. There is also a light rail line that runs from Jiachangkou in the south, up to Jiefangbei and then northwest past Daxigou, although this is of little use to casual visitors. Far more fun, though serving little functional transport purpose, there are two cable cars that cross from the Yuzhong peninsula to the north across the Jialing River and south across the Yangzi. Tickets are $1.5 each way and the services leave every 15 minutes from 8:30 am to noon and 2 pm to 6:30 pm.

Orientation

In spite of Chongqing's vast population and size, the principal area you need to concern yourself with is the teardrop-shaped parcel of land encircled by the Jialing and Yangzi rivers known as the Yuzhong district. The city center is focused on Jiefangbei, the Victory Monument, and includes the main business and shopping districts, as well as a good selection of hotels. Cruise boats and ferries leave from the Chaotianmen Docks on the eastern side of the peninsula, while Renmin Square in the west is the site of the new Three Gorges Museum and the People's Concert Hall. South of here you'll find the train and bus stations.

Information Sources

Chongqing has a monthly expat-oriented magazine, Chongqing Comments, which has a few local stories and reviews and can be found in major hotels.

Post Office:  Just south of the Jiefangbei junction on Minquan Lu.

Telephone code: 023

Internet Access: There are Internet cafés dotted around the downtown region.

Bank of China: Just east of the Jiefangbei junction on Zourong Lu and another near the Hui Xian Lou Hotel on Minzu Lu.

Public Security Bureau: 1 Linjiang Lu, off Wusi Lu (tel.023-6396-1944).

Medical Services: Chongqing Emergency Medical Center (tel.023-6369-2147) at 1 Jiankang Lu in Yuzhong.

Sightseeing

With a day to spare you could comfortably make the trip out to the Buddhist caves at Dazu, but if you just have a few hours you'll have to settle for the few sights within Chongqing. Foremost of those is the new Three Gorges Museum, although the Luohan Temple also makes for an interesting diversion. If you'd like a stroll, walk up Zhongshan Yi Lu (past the Chongqing Guesthouse) for a few minutes and you'll will find a surviving section of the old city walls which have been spruced up and are now adorned with a series of bronze statues that depict the siege of the city. There's also a good teahouse here.

In the City

Three Gorges Museum (daily 9 am-5:30 pm, last entry 4:30 pm; $40). This new museum is the showcase for many of the artifacts frantically excavated in the race against the rising waters of the Yangzi, and is housed in a grand, modern building that faces the People's Hall across Renmin Square. But, in spite of its state-of-the-art presentation and the fine quality of the museum's displays, many of the halls only have cursory explanations in English, leaving a lot to the imagination.

The ground floor focuses on the Three Gorges Dam Project and you'll find an impressive “cinepanorama" of the Three Gorges section of the Yangzi with shows at 10, 11 am, 2:30, 3:30 and 4:30 pm, as well as a model of the dam complete with shiplocks, lifts and lights.

The second floor has a hall dedicated to Ba Culture and includes a mighty mammoth's tusk, while a second exhibit traces the development of Chongqing as a settlement, complete with a mock-up of an old Chongqing street and all the businesses along it. On the third floor the Anti-Japanese War Exhibit has only an introduction in English and you're left guessing for the rest, although you'll recognize the replica of the Victory Monument if you've been downtown to Jiefangbei. There's also a Han dynasty sculpture display and an insight into the folk traditions of southwestern China, as well as an ancient coin collection hall on this floor – the square space in the center of the circular coins represents the ancient belief that the earth was square and was circled by a round heaven. The top floor holds painting, calligraphy and porcelain exhibits, which are interesting if you haven't already had your fill of such in other museums.

People's Concert Hall (daily 8 am-6:30 pm; $5). This 1950s building, above, modeled on Beijing's Temple of Heaven, is far more impressive from the outside, particularly as the interior and the adjacent Renmin Hotel were undergoing renovation at the time of writing. Nevertheless, if you come to see the Three Gorges Museum, the Concert Hall dominates the opposite side of the square and can hold 4,000 people.

Luohan Temple (daily 8 am-5 pm; $5). This small, intriguing temple to the east of Jiefangbei is definitely worth a visit. As you approach the temple you'll see a collection of incense shops that lead to its entrance. Once inside, the first thing you'll come across is a severely eroded but fascinating collection of Buddhist figures chiseled into the bare rockface. These were originally carved in the Song dynasty and are decorated with flowers, clothing and surrounded by incense, making for an atmospheric first impression of the temple. In the main temple complex itself you'll find the luohan (see Glossary) for which the temple is named, along with the usual collection of statuary to Sakyamuni and giant incense and candle burners. The temple is still very active and you'll see plenty of monks in attendance, along with folk from all walks of life coming to pray.

Around Chongqing

Dazu (daily 8:30 am-5 pm; $120 for both sites, see text for individual prices; buses from Caiyuan Bus Terminal in Chongqing - $45). If you have the time to head out to Dazu, a hundred miles west of Chongqing, then it's a thoroughly worthwhile two-hour ride. Nestled in the damp, overgrown valleys you'll find thousands of Buddhist statues carved into the rockface, resplendent in (recent) color. Dazu is one of the few southern examples of Buddhist cave art and many of the astoundingly detailed carvings date from the Song and Tang dynasties. The carvings are found in two principal areas, with Baoding Shan ($80) the most impressive, while Bei Shan ($60) has the earliest work. At Baoding Shan you'll find nearly 10,000 cliff-side figures spread around a U-shaped cove. Carvings include a grand reclining Sakyamuni at the bottom of the  and an amazing thousand-armed Guanyin.Baoding Shan can get busy so it's best to come around lunchtime. Or if you're looking for more solitude try quieter Bei Shan, but it's less popular for a reason and the carvings here pale in comparison. You can take a bus between the two sites for $3.

Galleries, Shows & Theaters

For evening entertainment you could check out the nightly hour-long shows at the Huguang Guild Museum in Chaotianmen. They feature a variety of acts, including acrobatics, dancing, singing and Szechuan mask-changing opera. Shows start at 8 pm and tickets cost from $98 to $288, which includes tea and snacks – call tel.023-6391-2798 for reservations.

Shopping

The pedestrianized streets around the Victory Monument are Chongqing's main shopping district and are lined with malls, shops, banks and fast-food outlets. For an interesting (and potentially alarming) little stroll, you could walk along Shihuishi Lu, home to a fresh (and live) food market. Everyday needs can be met at the Carrefour on Cangbai Lu, or at Trust-Mart which is in the shopping center to the north of the People's Concert Hall.

Where to Stay

While most visitors don't stay, if you do you'll find Chongqing's hotels generally offer good value. For an early departure you might want to stay down by the docks in Chaotianmen, but otherwise the best accommodations are in the center of town around Jiefangbei.

Chaotianmen Hotel, 18 Xingyi Jie (tel.023-6371-3370). Handy for the boats (but not for town), friendly, comfortable and with good views over the river, the Chaotianmen's downside is its price, which is above the odds. @ $$$

Chongqing Guesthouse, 235 Minsheng Lu (tel.023-6384-5888, www.cq-hotel.com). Well-located, comfortable and friendly, this is one of Chongqing's longstanding hotels and offers good value. It is deservedly popular, although the pool and health center are a little grubby. FC/SW/@ $$-$$$

Harbor Plaza, Wuyi Lu (tel.023-6370-8888, www.harbour-plaza.com/hpcq). One of the more upscale places in town, the Harbor Plaza offers a central location, with good rooms and facilities, including a great fitness center. FC/SW/@ $$$$$$

Hui Xian Lou, 186 Minzu Lu (tel.023-6384-5101). If you're on a tight budget and want to stay in the center of town then this could be the place for you. Rooms are small and musty but passable and discounts of 50% are standard. $$

Marriott, 77 Qingnian Lu (tel.023-6388-8888, www.marriotthotels.com). Along with the Harbor Plaza, this is the best-situated of Chongqing's international chains, offering comfortable rooms and all the usual amenities. FC/SW/@ $$$$$

Milky Way, 49 Datong Lu (tel.023-6380-8585, www.cqyinhe.com). The name hardly fits the mundane and functional rooms, but this is offset by a central location and reasonable prices. @ $$

Sanxia, 1 Shaanxi Lu (tel.023-6355-5555). The Sanxia is the best budget option by the port, offering a range of different kinds of rooms, all of which are clean and the better ones have views over the river. $-$$

Where to Eat

Chongqing is reputedly the home of hotpot (huoguo) and is a great place to sample this spicy bubbling broth. But if you can't take the heat there are regular Chinese restaurants  along with the usual Western fast-food options, most of which are found around Jiefangbei. Many Chinese restaurants don't have English menus, but in hotpot places the food to be put into the pot is often on display, so you can just point at what you want.

See Travel & Living Information, Food & Drink, for an explanation of restaurant price codes.

American Cowboy, 173, Renmin Lu (daily 11 am-10 pm). If you're visiting the Three Gorges Museum or the People's Concert Hall, then you could pop into this hotpot restaurant, where the choices are laid out buffet-style for you to select, although there are better places in the center of town. $$

Canglong Hotpot, 19, Cangbai Lu (daily 9 am-midnight). A popular place, which serves the yuan-yang style of hotpot, meaning you can choose if you want it cooked in the spicy broth or its less potent, but still delicious, alternative. $$

Common Tales, 3F Nanguo Lijing Building, 46Cangbai Lu (daily 9:30 am-midnight). Although the décor resembles a school canteen more than a great restaurant, this place serves some seriously spicy hotpot and enjoys good views over the Jialing River. $$

Daxigoudian Hexi Hotpot, 125 Renmin Lu (daily 9 am-midnight). On the northern side of the People's Concert Hall this is another hotpot place with a range of options including pots divided into four sections to make finding your food easier! $$

Lao Szechuan, Minzu Lu, next to KFC and the Huixian Lou Hotel (daily 10:30 am-2 pm & 4:30-9 pm). As you might guess from the name, this place specializes in spicy Szechuan food and includes favorites such as gongbao jiding (diced chicken with chili and peanuts) and yuxiang rousi (fish-flavored pork). They have a limited English menu. $$-$$$

Nightlife

Chongqing's nightlife options are fairly limited, but you'll find a few bars and clubs around Jiefangbei and all the major hotels have reasonable places for a drink – the Cotton Club is near the Marriott and has live music from its house band six nights a week.

The Three Gorges

The Three Gorges have been hailed as one of China's greatest sights for nearly 2,000 years, and they remain undeniably spectacular. However, the building of the world's biggest dam at Sandouping has consequences not only for the people and wildlife of the region, but also for its natural beauty. In spite of the dangers, part of the allure of the gorges was their swirling currents and the sheer height of the cliff walls; when the dam is completed, the gorges will appear some 400 feet lower than they were, and the raging river will be a placid 375-mile-long lake. For these reasons the rush to see the gorges before 2009 is on and, although the government is actually predicting an increase in visitors after completion, tour operators anticipate dwindling numbers as the water level rises.

Cruises

Cruises operate between Chongqing and Yichang, Wuhan or even Shanghai, but the crucial Three Gorges stretch runs between Baidicheng and the dam site at Sandouping. Ferries and cruise boats both offer splendid views of the gorges themselves and also stop at a collection of temples along the way. As you'd expect, the more you pay, the classier the vessel and the onboard services and facilities should be. Cruises typically last three nights for the Chongqing-to-Yichang section, but some of the upscale boats go at a more leisurely pace and can take as long as five days for this stretch, longer if they travel as far as Wuhan.

Types of Cruise

There are three principal styles of travel along the river: international and domestic cruise boats, ferries (which stop at all the tourist sights) and, finally, the 13-hour straight-through hydrofoil, which offers no more than a fleeting visit and is only worthwhile if you have financial or time constraints.

Cruise Boats

Some international cruise boats are effectively hotels on water and offer essentially the same facilities as you'd expect in a good hotel, although rooms are understandably a little smaller. Most rooms will have river views (check when you book) and the suites can be positively luxurious. Domestic cruisers can be nearly as good, but equally may not. Also, damp rooms and variable water temperature in the bathrooms can be issues. Facilities on the better ships might include a gym, as well as several lounges and dining areas, plus expansive viewing decks. Cruisers of all standards may offer the chance to learn something about Chinese culture,fromtai chito mah jong, and in the evenings you can usually enjoy some evening entertainment in the form of a show, disco or the ubiquitous karaoke.

On the better boats, all meals and excursions are generally included in the price. The only things you should have to pay for are drinks. Drinks are generally signed for and the bill is settled on the final evening. A few drinks are usually included with meals but, outside of these times, beverages (especially alcohol) and snacks tend to be drastically overpriced. So it's worth stocking up in Chongqing or Yichang. It's also customary to tip the boat staff and a recommended amount is often mentioned, but pay what you think befits the service you've received.

If you're booking a cheaper cruise, you should check exactly what is included in terms of excursions – frequently these are “extra" options which you will have to pay for. No matter what style of cruise you choose, you may find the schedule and guiding to be somewhat authoritarian and controlling, with musical wake-up calls and demands over the loudspeaker system that passengers assemble “immediately" for sightseeing excursions! Guides on the better boats should be of a good standard, but on cheaper cruises their English ability can range from excellent to unintelligible. However, given that most of what they are talking about on board relates to the perceived shapes of rocks, and that separate guides are available for onshore trips, this isn't crucial.

Ferries

Yangzi tourist boat

Ferries are at the bottom of the line, but really not that bad given the price. They manage to zip along from Chongqing to Yichang (or vice versa) in around 40 hours. Prices are as follows:

1st Class in a two-berth cabin – $1,022

2nd Class in a four-berth cabin – $463-510

3rd Class in a six-berth cabin – $297-327

4th Class in an eight-berth cabin – $229-252

There are cheaper classes, where you simply claim a space on the floor, but these are best avoided unless you have no choice or want to take the term “adventure travel" to its limits. All excursions, meals and drinks are extra, so budget (and stock up) accordingly. In terms of the excursions, you'll be approached the second you step off the boat – see the relevant sections under Sightseeing for approximate prices. Make sure you arrive back at the boat by the designated time as ferries aren't averse to leaving without tardy passengers.

Booking a Cruise

The Three Gorges are one of China's premier tourist attractions and a must-see on many people's lists. Cruises sell out quickly in peak season when it's worth booking at least a week in advance, and two months or more for the better international boats. As a single traveler, whatever kind of boat you choose, you'll have to pay a supplement if you want a twin room to yourself.

There are flights and trains on to major destinations from Yichang but they can get very booked up so it's worth arranging onward transport in advance through the agent that books your cruise in order to minimize layover time.

Booking from Overseas

For top-of-the-line boats try:

President Cruises (www.yzcruise.com) has a range of boats to suit different budgets from US$300.

China Regal Cruises (www.chinaregalcruises.com) – US$500-650.

Oriental Royal Cruises (www.orientalroyalcruise.com) – US$700-900.

Victoria Cruises (www.victoriacruises.com) – US$800-2,100.

Booking in China

Hotels, hostels and travel agents in other tourist cities will be able to book a cruise for you, along with connecting transport needs but, if you get to Chongqing with nothing secured, head to Chaotianmen at the eastern end of the peninsula, where you'll find the Ferry Ticket Booking Office (daily 6:30 am-10 pm), which also has a plane and train ticket booking service. Alternatively, there are a host of travel agents over the road on Xinyi Jie, who can arrange all categories of boat and will facilitate the process by getting you to the right mooring, which can otherwise be a tricky process. John Zhang at Changhang Jiangshan Boat Company (tel.023-6377-3545, cell tel.139-8317-7596; cqteddybear@126.com) is recommended – he is friendly, helpful and can look after your luggage while you head off to explore the city before commencing your cruise. For more upscale cruises the Chongqing Yangtze Impression International Travel Service (tel.023-6376-2392) on the 18th floor of the Baifu Hotel on Bayi Lu is a good bet. Cruises with these agencies can start from as little as US$150 but, for a better quality boat, expect to pay US$300-500 between Chongqing and Yichang and more for the journey to Wuhan.

Sightseeing

Cruises typically last three nights and stop at a few of the sights listed below en-route, although the highlight is the spectacle of the Three Gorges themselves. The major sights along the way are: Fengdu and Shibaozhai, both of which lie to the west of the gorges, Baidicheng, which marks the start of the first gorge, and the Lesser Three Gorges and Shennong Stream between here and the dam site at Sandouping. Sights throughout the region have been affected by the rising waters. While some, such as Shibaozhai, have been protected and others (Zhang Fei Temple, for example) have been moved, an equal number have been lost forever. However, as cruise ship operators and the government are keen to point out, the higher water levels will facilitate access to certain sites, including Baidicheng and Fengdu and will allow greater exploration of tributaries such as the Lesser Three Gorges and Shennong Stream.

All of the attractions are worth exploring but, if you're interested in visiting a certain sight in particular, ask when you book. Most cruises stop at Fengdu, but choose only one of the Lesser Three Gorges or Shennong Stream, and might include Shibaozhai or Baidicheng temples.If you're on an upscale cruise boat, then all the excursions (including entry fees) should be included, while on cheaper boats you may have to pay for each trip. Transfer to the sights sometimes takes place by bus or ferry and a guide will be appointed for the English speakers from your boat and will take you through the main sections of the sight, perhaps giving you some free time to explore at the end. Guides often focus on the legends associated with sights; while entertaining, many of these stories are best taken with a pinch of salt. If you want to go it alone, make sure to tell your guide and arrange a time to meet and return to the boat. These stops are also a good opportunity to stock up on drinks and snacks if you don't want to pay the boat's inflated prices – you'll find shops, stalls and vendors clustered around docks and at the sight entrances.Cruises finish at Yichang (or Wuhan). But, until the lake is completely full in 2009, the locks may be closed from time to time, meaning you'll disembark at Sandouping, avoiding the intriguing four-hour journey through the locks.

The Gorges

The Three Gorges (Qutang, Wu and Xiling) lie between Fengjie and Yichang, and offer a stunning ride through towering peaks steeped in history and legend. All three gorges were formerly treacherous to navigate, particularly Xiling and Qutang, and the latter was famously described by Song poet Su Dongpo as “a thousand oceans in one cup." These days the gorges are far tamer and by 2009 the whole run should be smooth sailing. Passing through the gorges, you'll see bold markers denoting the water level when the lake reaches its full height. Of the three gorges, Qutang, at only five miles long, is the shortest, while Wu (Witch Gorge) stretches for some 30 miles and Xiling is longer still at 50 miles. Although they have lost some of their depth, the gorges remain impressive and all three have craggy, lofty peaks which have been given poetic sounding names to describe their shape. Guides will keenly tell you these names as you pass by and if you're lucky you might actually be able to see the resemblance – Goddess Peak in Wu Gorge and Monk Hung Upside Down in Qutang Gorge are both recognizable. High up on the side of Qutang Gorge, you can also just pick out a series of four hanging coffins dating from the Ba period.

Fengdu Ghost Temple ($80)

A hundred miles east of Chongqing, Fengdu city has been completely covered by the rising waters of the dam, and its residents have been relocated to the other side of the river, but the ghostly temple itself remains intact. The 15-minute climb up gives a little chance to stretch your legs but, if the boat has put you in a stupor, there's a cable car ($15 one-way, $20 round-trip). At the top you'll be greeted by a grizzly collection of brightly colored statues that allegedly only allow the virtuous to pass – look out for the baby-munching green demon and his blue pal who's chewing on a leg!

Demons guarding the Fengdu Ghost Temple

The temple itself is dedicated to the King of the Dead, and guides will eagerly tell you a legion of macabre tales associated with the site, encouraging you to participate in an Indiana Jones-style set of tests, such as crossing a bridge in only three steps and running up a staircase without taking a breath! On the way out you should make sure not to miss the display of fiendish judges of hell, keenly meting out appropriate punishments to wrongdoers – a glutton is being boiled alive in a cauldron of oil and a nagging woman is having her tongue removed!

Shibaozhai ($60)

Fifty miles on from Fengdu, the 12-storey tower and temple at Shibaozhai is one of the most impressive structures along the cruise and although the town at its foot is now submerged, a coffer dam is being built to hold off the lake's waters. The pagoda-style tower and temple were built during the Qing dynasty and the rocky outcrop to which they cling was once joined to the north bank of the river, but has now become an island.

Baidicheng (White Emperor City; $80)

The whole of this stretch of the Yangzi is associated with the Three Kingdoms Period which is recounted in the 14th-century novel, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, but nowhere as much so as Baidicheng. White Emperor City was established by the Shu King, Gong Sun, after he saw a white mist rising from a local well, whence he also proclaimed himself the White King. The Shu protagonist, Liu Bei, retreated here after his closest ally was killed by his own troops and Liu died here in 265 AD. There's a tablet commemorating his death in the temple, and there used to be another temple dedicated to his ally, Zhang Fei, although this has now been moved, brick-by-brick, to Yunyang, to save it from the rising waters. Poets were also inspired by the region and Tang master Li Bai (see Poetry) “left Baidi amidst colorful clouds."

Tributary Trips

The Lesser Three Gorges ($190)

A little way beyond Baidicheng, the Daning River joins the Yangzi, and there's a great five-hour trip to be enjoyed up the “Lesser Three Gorges" as this dramatic stretch of the Daning River is known. You'll transfer from your cruiser to smaller motor crafts and push farther upstream through some stunningly narrow gorges and, unless it's been raining heavily, you'll see the water color change from murky brown to emerald green as you progress. There's a hanging coffin to be spotted in the second gorge and you might even see monkeys if you're lucky. In days gone by you would be pulled up by men with ropes (see Shennong Stream, below), but as the water level has risen this is no longer the case.

Navigating the Lesser Three Gorges

Shennong Stream ($160)

There's another excellent upstream adventure to be enjoyed on the Shennong Stream, a little downstream of Wushan. This four-hour trip affords breathtaking gorge views from small wooden rowing boats, which are painstakingly pulled through the roughest parts by teams of men using ropes. The local people are famous for their singing and your trip might be accompanied by their dulcet tones. To get to the smaller boats you have to take a 40-minute ferry ride from your cruise ship. A little east of the Shennong Stream, Zigui is the hometown of famed minister and poet, Qu Yuan, whose river suicide is remembered by the Dragon Boat Festival (see Holidays & Festivals).

Three Gorges Dam Site ($135)

Whatever you think of the project, it's gone ahead and is being touted as the best thing to happen in China since boiled rice. I visited the dam site several times during its construction and every time was overwhelmed not only by its gargantuan scale, but also by its popularity with domestic tourists. At the site there's an exhibition detailing construction and with a grand model of the dam. You can ascend to a viewpoint where you can overlook the whole site. If you're lucky, your guide might be able to arrange for you to take a trip along the top of the dam itself (see picture below) – ask in advance and note that security is tight. You can also visit the dam site from Yichang by minibus or bus #8, which takes around an hour and costs $25.

Three Gorges Dam Project

Throughout history, China's great rivers and particularly the Yangzi, have been both a blessing, bearing fertile soils and transport, and a curse, bringing floods, destruction and death. Since the time of Yu, Tamer of Floods (see Xia Dynasty), the Chinese have been trying to reap the river's rewards, while minimizing its catastrophes, but the first serious talk of damming the river didn't come until the 20th century. Initially deemed impossible, plans were finally put into motion in 1994, and quickly provoked international condemnation on several fronts – namely damage to the environment, the human cost, the catastrophic risks if the dam fails, and the claim that the dam won't effectively serve its purpose of flood prevention throughout the region.

Fast Facts:

Cost: US$24 billion and counting

Number of workers: 40,000

Number of people re-located: 1.2 million

Length of dam: 1.4 miles

Height: 607 feet

Hydro-electric capacity: 19 gigawatts (10% of China's requirements)

Number of Locks: Five, plus the world's biggest ship-lift

Water-level rise: 400 feet across the Three Gorges

Many experts believe that the best way to address flooding along the Yangzi would be to build several smaller dams, but the energy needs and grand project mentality of the government has brushed these aside in favor of the biggest construction feat in China since the Great Wall. The dam is in a tectonic fault zone and, although it has been designed to withstand missile attack, the appearance of cracks along its walls has done little to reassure skeptics. Even if all these fears are unfounded there are further worries that the lake will silt up in a matter of decades – the river at Chongqing is already suffering from increased sedimentation and the government recognizes that it will need to address the problem. In spite of all these concerns, the coffer dam was demolished in 2006 and the project is now way past the point of no return. However, for all the negatives there are a few positive points. First, the dam should prevent the loss of thousands of lives to flooding; second, it provides a renewable source of energy which will reduce reliance on fossil fuels; and third, the dam allows the Yangzi to be safely navigable, even by large vessels, for the first time in human history.

Human & Cultural Costs

In order to construct the dam and create one of the world's biggest man-made lakes, over a million people have been forced to relocate – a gargantuan task in itself. Many of these people have lived in the same villages and towns all of their lives and are unsure how they will cope with relocation. One of the most heartbreaking things I've seen in my time in China is people demolishing their own homes along lowlying stretches of the river. The Yangzi valley is one of the cradles of civilization in China and there are also thousands of unearthed historic relics that will be lost forever. Only one percent of the dam project's budget is allocated for the protection of cultural relics, but 10,000 workers are frantically excavating 600 sites, racing against the rising water level to uncover as much as possible before it's too late. Artifacts are being found faster than they can be catalogued, but for every piece which makes its way to the new

Three Gorges Museum

in Chongqing, an untold number of treasures will be lost.

Environmental & Economic Costs

Beyond human and cultural effects, the dam will also irrevocably alter the ecosystem and affect the creatures living within it. Animals such as the Chinese alligator and Yangzi River dolphin (see Flora & Fauna) were already struggling for survival and the dam looks set to seal their fate. Furthermore, some of the area's inherent natural beauty will be lost and, although plans are afoot to develop designated tourist zones, there are fears that the lake will become a giant sludge-pool of polluted water. Over a million visitors traveled along the Three Gorges in 2004 and, despite government claims to the contrary, these numbers are expected to decline. If they do, the region will lose an important sector of its economy.

Yichang

Yichang is a small city on the north bank of the Yangzi which would see few visitors were it not the terminus for the Three Gorges cruise, and the nearest city to the gigantic dam 22 miles west at Sandouping. Most tourists arrive by boat from Chongqing, but you can also start the Three Gorges cruise upstream from Yichang, which takes fractionally longer. Chances are you won't need to stay in Yichang, but if you do you'll find reasonable hotel rates and a pleasant, if unexceptional small city.

Getting Here & Away

By Air

Taxis cost around $60 to the airport, which is six miles east of town.

Flight details from Yichang

Beijing (2 daily, 2 hrs); Chongqing (1 daily, 50 mins); Guangzhou (2 daily, 1 hr 40 mins); Shanghai (1 daily, 2 hrs); Shenzhen (1 daily, 1 hr 30 mins); Xi'an (1 daily, 1 hr 10 mins).

By Rail

The train station sits on a hill immediately above Dongshan Dadao.

Train details

Beijing (1 daily, 20 hrs); Guangzhou (3 daily, 15-23 hrs); Hangzhou (1 daily, 27 hrs); Nanjing (1 daily, 21 hrs); Shanghai (1 daily, 10 hrs); Xi'an (1 daily, 6 hrs).

Getting Around

Yichang is small enough to negotiate on foot, but there are taxis ($5) if it's too hot to walk.

Orientation

As a small city Yichang is fairly easy to find your way around and the bulk of amenities are within walking distance of the train station. The train station sits on a hill in the north of town and there are restaurants, hotels, shops, a post office and banks between here and the Yangzi River a mile to the south.

Information Sources

The better hotels are your best bet for information in Yichang, but the CITS at Yiling Lu (tel.0717-6220-837) are also helpful and can arrange tours.

Communications

Telephone code: 0717

Post Office: At the intersection of Yunji Lu and Yiling Lu.

Internet access: There are Internet cafés dotted around the city, including one on the south side of Fusui Lu.

Bank of China: Shengli Lu.

Public Security Bureau: Tiyuchang Lu (tel.0717-6499-943).

Medical services: Yichang Central People's Hospital at 127 Yiling Lu (tel.0717-6447-894).

Sightseeing

Aside from the mammoth Sandouping Dam site an hour out of town, which has become a popular tourist sight, Yichang has little in the way of visitor attractions. You can take a taxi to the Gezhouba Dam ($20) in the north of town, which was formerly the largest along the Yangzi, but otherwise the best thing to do is take a wander through the riverside park.

Where to Stay

If you plan your onward travel well, there's no need to stay in Yichang, but if you find yourself here for a night there are a few reasonable hotels. The functional but friendly Heping Jia Ri (tel.0717-6254-088; $$) and upscale Yichang International (tel.0717-6222-888; $$$) are both down by the river on Yanjiang Dadao, while the Taohualing (tel.0717-6236-666; $$$-$$$$) on Yunji Lu is a safe mid-range bet in the center of town. If you're on a tight budget, there are a selection of cheap places at the train station end of Yunji Lu, including the good value New Century Hotel (tel.0717-6445-559; $$).

See Travel & Living, Food & Drink section for an explanation of the $ restaurant price codes and Accommodation for a key to the hotel price codes.

Where to Eat & Drink

Yichang's restaurant scene isn't up to much, but the better hotels have reasonable fare and the Beijing Jiaoziguan ($-$$) on Longkang Lu serves tasty dumplings and other northern fare. For cheap eats the nightmarket, which sets up along the river on Yanjiang Dadao, is popular with locals and tourists alike. You'll find a good cup of tea and some riverside retreat at the Zhenjiangge Teahouse, but if you crave things Western there's a McDonald's and KFC set around the square, and a few coffee shops such as Liujin Suiyue nearby. Yichang doesn't have much nightlife to speak of, but there are a few bars along Jiefang Lu.

Appendix

Bibliography & Recommended Reading

The following books are all worth reading, particularly the triple-starred works, and have been of use and interest during my travels in China and the compilation of this book. You'll find reviews for most of the titles below at www.amazon.com.

Biographies

Jung Chang, Wild Swans

Jung Chang & Jon Halliday, Mao: The Unknown Story

Richard Evans, Deng Xiaoping and the Making Of Modern China

Ma Jian, Red Dust: a Path Through China

John Man, Genghis Khan

Anchee Min, Red Azalea: Life and Love in China

Philip Short, Mao: A Life

Marina Warner, The Dragon Empress

Adeline Yeh Mah, Fallen Leaves

Classics

Li Bai & Du Fu, Endless River

Wu Cheng'en, Journey to the West

Confucius, The Book of Songs

Luo Guanzhong, Romance of the Three Kingdoms

Luo Guanzhong & Shi Nai'an, Outlaws of the Marsh aka The Water Margin

David R. McCraw, Du Fu's Laments from the South

Arthur Waley (trans) Monkey – an abbreviated version of Journey to the West

Cao Xueqin, The Dream of the Red Chamber

Sun Zi, The Art of War

Culinary

Francine Halvorsen, The Food and Cooking of China

Nina Simonds, The Food of China: a Journey for Food Lovers

Martin Yan, Martin Yan's Culinary Journey Through China

Culture & Society

Ian Buruma, Bad Elements: Chinese Rebels from LA to Beijing

Tom Clissold, Mr China

Ted Fishmen, China Inc

Oded Shenkar, The Chinese Century

Kenneth Wilkinson, World Cultures: China

XueXinran, The Good Women of China

Fiction

Andrea Barrett, The Middle Kingdom

Carolyn Choa & Su Li-Qun, The Picador Book of Contemporary Chinese Fiction

Wei Hui, Shanghai Baby

Lao She, Rickshaw Boy

Wang Shuo, Please Don't Call Me Human

Sid Smith, A House by the River

Annie Wang, People's Republic of Desire

Mo Yan, The Garlic Ballads

History

Patricia Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China

Peter Fleming, The Siege at Peking

Larry Habegger & James O'Reilly, Travellers Tales: China

Ann Paludan, Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors

J.A.G. Roberts, A History of China

Mao Zedong, Quotations of Mao Tse-Tung aka The Little Red Book

Historical Accounts

Zhang Boli, Escape from China: the Long Journey from Tian'anmen to Freedom

Jenni Daiches (aka Jenni Calder), Letters from the Great Wall

Peter Hopkirk, Foreign Devils on the Silk Road

Julia Lovell, The Great Wall

Gavin Menzies, 1421, The Year China Discovered the World

Anchee Min, Empress Orchid

Yan Mo, Red Sorghum

Marco Polo, The Travels

Sun Shuyun, The Long March

Edgar Snow, Red Star Over China

Lu Xun, Diary of a Madman & other stories

Hong Kong & Macau

Austin Coates, Myself a Mandarin

Jonathan Dimbleby, The Last Governor

Richard Mason, The World of Suzie Wong

Paul Theroux, Kowloon Tong

Frank Welsh, A History of Hong Kong

Martial Arts

Kumar Frantzis, The Power of Internal Martial Arts

Bruce Lee, Tao of Jeet Kune Do

Erle Montaigue, Power Taiji

Bruce Thomas, Bruce Lee: Fighting Spirit

Religion & Philosophy

Kenneth Ch'en, Buddhism in China

Confucius, The Analects

Martin Palmer, Travels Through Sacred China

Lao Zi, Tao Te Ching

Travel Literature

Raymond Barnett, Jade and Fire: a Novel of Emerging China

Polly Evans, Fried Eggs with Chopsticks

Peter Fleming, One's Company: a Journey to China in 1933

Polly Greeks, Embracing the Dragon: a Woman's Journey along the Great Wall of China

Peter Hessler, Oracle Bones:  Journey between China & the West

Peter Hessler, River Town: Two Years on the Yangtze

W. Somerset Maugham, On a Chinese Screen

Simon Myers, Adrift in China

Paul Theroux, Riding the Iron Rooster

Colin Thubron, Behind the Wall

Lulu Wang, The Lily Theater: a Novel of Modern China

Simon Winchester, The River at the Center of the World: a Journey up the Yangtze and Back in Chinese Time

Gao Xingjian, One Man's Bible

Glossary

Arhat                                         Buddhist saint (luohan in Mandarin)

Cheongsam               Traditional Chinese women's dress (qipao in Mandarin)

Dharma                                      Buddhist path to enlightenment

Hutong                                      Narrow alley

Laowai                                      Foreigner (old outsider)

Luoha                                Chinese word for arhat

Mah Jong                                   Traditional Chinese board game

Mandala                     Mystical geometric diagram representing the cosmos

Paifang                                      Memorial arch

Pinyi                      Romanization of Chinese characters

Putonghua                                  Mandarin Chinese (normal language)

Qili                                    Mythical creature associated with good luck

Siheyua                             Courtyard house

Sinicized                                    Made Chinese

Stele (stelae)                              Commemorative stone tablet

Tai Ji                            Style of Martial Art

Wushu                                      Martial Arts

Acronyms

CAAC                                        Civil Aviation Authority of China

CCP                                          Chinese Communist Party

CITS                                         China International Travel Service

CTS                                          China Travel Service

KCR                                         Kowloon-Canton Railway

KMT                                  Kuomintang (Guomindang in pinyin) –  Nationalist Party

MTR                                         Mass Transit Railway (subway)

PLA                                          People's Liberation Army

PRC                                          People's Republic of China

PRD                                         Pearl River Delta

PSB                                          Public Security Bureau

RMB                                         Ren Min Bi (People's Money)

ROC                                         Republic of China (Taiwan)

SEZ                                          Special Economic Zone

WHO                                        World Health Organization

WTO                                         World Trade Organization

WWF                                        World Wildlife Foundation

Hotel Abbreviations

SW                                           Swimming Pool

FC                                            Fitness Center

@                                              Internet access in rooms

DA                                            Rooms suitable for disabled people available

Language

Chinese initially seems a baffling cacophony of tones and a labyrinth of characters, but with a little effort, a good sense of humor and the odd hand gesture you should be able to make yourself understood. Even the tiniest bit of spoken Chinese will help traveling in practical terms, but will also be widely appreciated by anyone who you try it out on. Learning Mandarin Chinese is no easy feat – the tones and the characters see to that, however, the grammatical structure is comparatively simple and even just a few hours study should yield some results, if only in your understanding of the tenets of the language rather than practical usage.

Dialects

There are countless different dialects of Chinese (known as hanyu or zhongwen in China and guoyu in Taiwan) which can sound as unalike as a deep southern drawl and a New York accent, and there are also a host of other spoken languages amongst the ethnic minorities. The prevalent form of Chinese on the mainland is putonghua (normal language), the Beijing dialect which has clearly defined tones and a tendency to add “er" to the end of words. In the far south and Hong Kong, guangdonghua or Cantonese is the prevalent tongue and with its garrulous nine tones, feels a world away from the refined north. Other major dialects include Shanghainese and Hokkien (minnanhua) which is spoken in Fujian. Some of the most widely spoken ethnic languages are Hakka (kejia), Mongol, Uyghur and Tibetan. Putonghua is understood throughout China and Taiwan, although in remote rural areas older people may only speak their regional or ethnic dialect.

The Spoken Word

Chinese is a tonal language, meaning that any character can have many different meanings according to its tone and the character it is connected to. There are four principal tones (1- high flat, 2 - low rising, 3 - starting high, falling, then rising again – like a Chinese hat upside down, 4 - abrupt falling) and a fifth “toneless" tone. This means that any one character can have many different meanings depending upon its tone and the character it is linked with. Thus: ma (1 - mother), má (2 - hemp), ma  (3 - horse), mà (4 - scold).

Unless you are a natural linguist the tones take some mastering, but don't be shy to try – if you have context (you're in a bar and you ask for a beer for example) you're likely to be understood even if your tone is a little off. However, be prepared for a few blank faces too! Even if you have good Mandarin many people just won't expect you to speak Chinese and are convinced they won't be able to understand you – repeating yourself should do the trick. Amusingly if you manage to get into a conversation but then hit a linguistic stumbling block some people will write the Chinese character in the belief that this will be easier to understand. This offers some insight into the diversity of the language – people from far flung parts of the country may not understand eachother's dialects, but if they can read they'll be able to communicate.

Practicing the tones for some basic phrases and then trying them out in context makes a good way to start teaching yourself Chinese, although understanding the responses can be more problematic! If you're really keen to learn the language then there are plenty of great places to do just that all over the country, from short lessons to entire courses (see Studying and Working in China and individual chapter listings). For me though the best way to learn a language is to absorb yourself in a country – gradually the strings of unintelligible sentences start to break down into words and once you've heard the word enough times to repeat it, ask what it is and that's your word for the day…

The Written Word

You need to know around a couple of thousand Chinese characters to be able to read a newspaper and learning to write Chinese takes years of study. However, even for the short-term visitor there is insight found through understanding a few of the characters. The Chinese written language was originally a pictographic language and this can still be seen in some of its more elemental symbols such as fire, middle and mountain. In 1956 as part of Chairman Mao's drive to increase literacy, the Chinese written form was simplified and thousands of characters were lost or altered. This system has indeed facilitated learning but in Hong Kong and Taiwan the original characters remain in use and are admired for their elegance and sense of history. As a language without an alphabet Chinese has to adapt itself and create new character combinations to deal with modern inventions. Thus train literally translates as fire-car and computer means electric brain!

Chinese has been Romanized into a system called pinyin (spellsound), which also incorporates the tones (see The Spoken Word for more on the tones). Pinyin is far more effective than the dated Wade-Giles and more modern tongyong transliteration systems still used in Taiwan. Many of the letters are pronounced in the same or a similar way to their English sound, however there are a few notable exceptions:

c (ts, thus cun is tsun) / q (ch, thus qin is Chin) / x (sh, thus xie xie is she she) / z (ds, thus zai is dsai), zh (j, thus zhong is jong).

Grammar

Chinese grammar offers some light relief from the complexity of the tonal and written language and is fairly simple compared with English. Sentence order generally follows the subject verb object format and a few basic words offer the key to changing tenses and altering sentences from statements to questions or demands. If ma is added to the end of any sentence it makes it into a question (ni yao ma = “Do you want?"), or alternatively the verb can simply be repeated after a negative (ni yao bu yao = you want not want meaning “Do you want?"). There is no conjugation of verbs and to change tenses you simply start the sentence with the relevant one of the following (yiqian or zhiqian=before/ yi hou or wei lai=after or in the future).

Content

Foster Simon CHINA's Three Gorges & Xi'an